Mission statement = written, clear and concise declaration of expectations and services to be performed.
Training practice and needs document called “Fire fighting Bulletin Number 155, series 44, Federal Board of Vocational Education, 1931”.
The books “Firefighting Tactics and Strategy” and “Attacking and Extinguishing Interior Fires” were published after WW II.
Two major concepts in fire service: Information Half Life and Technological Obsolescence.

Chapter 2 “Fire Department Organization, Command and Control”

One prime mission of all fire departments is the prevention of fires.
Regulations are the rules that determine how an organization operates.
Policies are formal statements or directives to provide guidelines for decision making.
Rules for Developing SOPs

1) SOPs address the who, what, where, when and how of a topic

2) Firefighter safety is the first consideration for all procedures

3) SOPs should be brief, clear and concise

4) Lengthy SOPs should be broken down into smaller sections

5) SOPs must be reviewed often, at least every three years

6) If a SOP does not work, change it

Transfer of command can only happen when the person taking command is at the incident scene
Division – command designation responsible for operations within an assigned geographical area.
Engine Company – The unit designation of a group of firefighters assigned to a piece of equipment designed to deliver water to the fire scene.
Exit Drills in the Home (EDITH) – A fire survival program to encourage people to practice fire drills from their home or residence.
Incident Management System (IMS) – A systematic approach for the management, command and control of an emergency situation.
Modular Organization – The ability to start small and expand if an incident becomes more complex.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) – A not-for-profit membership organization that uses a consensus process to develop model fire prevention codes and firefighting training standards.
NFPA 1001 - Standard for firefighter professional qualifications, a national consensus training standard establishing the job performance requirements of tasks to be performed by firefighters.
Rapid Intervention Team (RIT) – A company designated to search for and rescue trapped or lost.
Span of control – the number of resources that any one person supervises (usually three to seven people five people ideal)
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) – Specific information and instruction on how a task or assignment is to be accomplished.
Unity of command – having one designated leader or officer on charge of an operation, company or single resource.

· INTRODUCTION:

· A fire department will consist of companies

· Companies are divided into functions.

· Organization is designed to establish a division of work assignments.

· A firefighter may have different roles.

o Business of Fire Protection:

§ “Fire Protection is the business of providing help to people during emergency and non-emergency operations”

o Mission Statement:

§ Provides a clear and defined purpose of the type and level of service a department provides.

§ Lets the public know what to expect from the fire department.

o Organizational Structure:

§ A fire department must have some type of organizational structure.

§ Structure may be internal.

§ Structure can show interdependence.

o The Firefighter:

§ “Member of a fire department who fights fires.”

§ May have training in other areas.

§ NFPA 1001 defines skills and abilities.

o The Company:

§ The basic unit (engine, truck, or rescue company.)

§ Under the direction of a Captain and Lieutenants.

o Engine Company:

§ Deliver water at fire scene.

§ Stretch hoselines.

§ Attack and extinguish fires.

§ Carries hose, pump, water tank, tools, & appliances.

o Truck (Ladder) Company:

§ Forcible entry.

§ Search and rescue.

§ Ventilation.

§ Ladders.

§ Securing utilities.

§ Overhaul.

§ Carries ladders, aerial device and tools.

o Rescue (Squad) Company:

§ Forcible entry.

§ Search and rescue.

§ Light tower.

§ Specialized rescue:

§ Vehicle extrication.

§ Confined space.

§ Rope rescue.

o Emergency Medical Services:

§ Many fire departments provide BLS or ALS care.

§ May be assigned to engine, truck, or rescue company.

§ Some fire departments operate ambulances providing EMS transport service.

o Chief Officers:

§ Chief of Department.

§ Deputy Chief.

§ Assistant Chief.

§ Division Chief.

§ Battalion Chief.

o Additional Fire Department Functions:

§ Fire Prevention:

Code Enforcement
Fire/Life Safety

§ Training Division

§ Emergency Medical Services

§ Apparatus Maintenance and Purchasing

§ Special Operations

o Regulations, Policies, Bylaws, and Procedures:

§ All organizations must have regulations, policies, and procedures.

§ Regulations are rules that determine how an organization operates.

§ Policies are formal statements or directives.

§ Volunteer departments may be organized as independent corporations.

§ Board of Directors establish bylaws as governing documents.

§ Procedures are often referred to as standard operating procedures (SOPs).

§ SOPs define how a task or assignment is to be accomplished.

§ SOPs designed so that all members perform the same function with uniformity.

o Allied Agencies and Organizations:

§ Police

§ Public works

§ Utility companies

§ Environmental protection

§ Private business

o Incident Management:

§ Fire departments respond to more than 2 million fire incidents a year.

§ Firefighters must understand concept of command and control.

§ Command officer must be able to manage effectively.

§ Command and span of control help maintain control of a scene.

§ Unity of command means having one designated leader or officer.

§ Span of control refers to number of resources one person supervises.

§ First arriving unit will assume command.

§ Command usually transferred to person with more experience or senior officer.

o Components of IMS:

§ Common terminology.

§ Modular organization.

§ Integrated communications.

§ Consolidated incident action plan.

§ Span of control.

§ Designated incident facilities.

o Resource Management:

§ Single resource.

§ Task force.

§ Strike team.

Incident Management System (IMS): a systematic approach for the command, control and management of an emergency incident.

Components of the IMS:

§ Common terminology: the designation of a term that is the same throughout an IMS.

§ Modular organization: the ability to start small and expand if an incident becomes more complex.

§ Integrated communications: the ability of all units or agencies to communicate at an incident.

§ Unified command structure: used to manage an incident involving multiple response agencies or when multiple jurisdictions have responsibility for control of an incident.

§ Consolidated Incident Action Plans (IAP): the written or unwritten strategic goals or tactical objectives that must be achieved to eliminate the hazard or control the incident.

§ Manageable span of control: the ability of one individual to supervise a number of other people or units. Usually 3 to 7 people or units with the ideal number being five.

§ Predesignated incident facilities: may be as simple as a command post (vehicle) or complex enough to include a staging area, rehab area, feeding facilities and office space.

§ Comprehensive resource management: common designators are used for all resources assigned to an incident.

Resources are assigned and managed in one of the following ways:

o Single resource: personnel or vehicle and required equipment.

o Task Force: any combination of single resources within the span of control guidelines, assembled for a common task or assignment.

o Strike Team: a combination of a specific number of units of the same kind and type.

Five Major Functions of IMS:

1) Command: person in overall command of incident. The IC is ultimately responsible for all incident activities.

a. IC may form command staff which includes the following:

i. Safety Officer: responsible for the safety of all responders at an incident and has the authority to stop any activities that pose an immediate danger to incident responders. All other safety issues are channeled through the IC.

ii. Liaison Officer: responsible for communications and contact between other agencies that respond.

iii. Public Information Officer: responsible for providing factual and accurate information to the news media. Only one information officer is appointed for each incident.

2) Operations: reports directly to IC and is responsible for managing all operations that directly affect the primary mission of eliminating the problem. Directs the tactical operations to meet the strategic goals developed by the IC. Operations may be subdivided into as many as five branches if necessary.

3) Planning: responsible for the collection, evaluation, dissemination and use of information concerning the development of the incident.

4) Logistics: responsible for providing the facilities, services and materials necessary to support the incident.

a. There are two branches within logistics:

i. Support: supplies, facilities and ground support (vehicles).

ii. Service: medical, communications and food services.

5) Finance/administration: responsible for tracking and documenting all costs and financial aspects of the incident.

Incident Command Designations:

§ Command: the function of directing, ordering and controlling resources by virtue of explicit legal, agency or delegated authority.

§ Division: a geographic designation assigning responsibility for all operations within a defined area. Organizationally, the division level is between a strike team or other operational unit and a branch.

§ Group: functional designations (forcible entry, salvage, ventilation, etc)

§ Sector: a geographic or functional assignment that is equivalent to a division or a group or both.

§ Branch: established to maintain span of control over a number of divisions, sectors or groups. A branch must have at least two divisions or groups.

§ Kind: what a resource is called, such as an engine or truck company.

§ Type: a resource that has specific capabilities or equipment.

§ Task Force: any combination of single resources within the span of control guidelines, assembled for a common task or assignment.

§ Strike Team: a combination of a specific number of units of the same kind and type.

§ Crew: a specific number of firefighters with an assigned task, but usually without apparatus.

Implementing the IMS System:

§ IMS should be initiated by the first person arriving on the scene of an emergency. This individual evaluates the situation in order to answer the following questions:

o What has occurred?

o What is the current status of the emergency?

o Is anyone injured or trapped?

o Can the emergency be handled with the resources on scene or in route?

o Does the emergency fall within the scope of the individuals training?

IMS Transfer of Command:

§ If transfer cannot take place face-to-face, transfer can occur over radio. Command can only be transferred to someone who is on scene.

§ The person relinquishing command must provide the person assuming command a Situation Status Report.

§ Situation Status Report:

Description of what happened
Whether anyone was/is injured or trapped
What has been done so far
Whether the problem has stabilized or is getting worse
What resources are on scene or en route
Whether current resources are adequate for the situation or if more resources need to be called

IMS Tracking Resources:

§ the Incident Action Plan (IAP) must contain a tracking and accountability system with the following elements:

o Procedure for checking in at the scene

o Way of identifying the location of each unit and all personnel on scene

o Procedure for releasing units no longer needed

Chapter 3 “Communications and Alarms”

· Fire service communications is an important role of the fire service.

· Telecommunicators must communicate with citizens and relay information to first responders.

· Communications have a great impact on the delivery of service.

· Communications process must be complete and understood to be complete.

· If a municipality receives over 2500 alarms per year, NFPA standards require two (2) operators on duty 24/7.

o Communications Personnel:

§ Basic role of communications has not changed over time.

§ Telecommunicator is responsible for:

· Receiving calls.

· Evaluating response need.

· Initiating appropriate response.

§ Telecommunicators may remain on the line with a caller and provide pre-arrival instructions.

§ 1061 – Standard for Professional Qualifications for Public Safety Telecommunication

§ Detailed work performance evaluation program must follow training programs.

§ Communication managers rely on historical data to provide staffing models and requirements.

§ Fire departments must provide well-trained personnel to serve as communicators.

§ These individuals have a direct impact on the overall response time of the agency.

o Communications Facility:

§ Dispatch centers range in size and staffing.

§ All serve common goal of receiving and delivering information.

§ NFPA-1221 – location and construction of emergency communications centers

§ All communication centers should have a backup in place.

§ New technology in hardware and software has allowed incorporation of computers.

§ Computer Aided Dispatch systems.

§ Computer can track location and status of incidents and vehicles.

o Receiving Reports of Emergencies:

§ Call-taking process consists of:

· Receiving a report.

· Interviewing.

· Referral or dispatch.

§ Telecommunicators must be able to:

· Prioritize incoming calls.

· Answer incoming lines promptly.

· Control the conversation.

§ The following information must be obtained:

· Location of emergency.

· Nature of emergency.

· Callback number.

· Caller’s location and situation.

§ Call taker must ask the right questions to generate proper responses.

§ Many departments use emergency medical dispatch protocols for dealing with EMS calls.

o Methods of Receiving Reports of Emergencies:

§ Reports of emergencies can be received in various ways.

§ Telephone is the most common means.

§ 93% of the population in the US have 911 access.

§ 95% of the 93% have enhanced 911.

§ Geographically 50% of nation has 911.

§ Enhanced 911 provides telephone numbers and addresses of call origins.

§ Cellular phone becoming very common.

§ By 2000, cellular phones must be able to provide means to determine caller location.

§ Municipal fire alarms allow a coded or voice message to be generated from an alarm box.

§ Alarm boxes located in areas of easy access and visibility.

§ This system began near the turn of the century.

§ Commonly referred to as call boxes.

§ Automatic alarm systems are another means to notify communications.

§ Two types of alarm systems defined by NFPA.

· Type A receives alarm from a fire alarm box and retransmits to a fire station manually or automatically.

· Type B automatically sends alarm to fire station.

§ Auxiliary System:

· Three basic types of auxiliary system:

o Local energy system - used only in communities that are served by a municipal fire-alarm-box system and is attached directly to a hard-wired or radio-type box. Alarm trips alarm box and transmits an alarm to the fire alarm center.

o Shunt system - municipal alarm circuit extends (is shunted) into the protected property. The alarm is instantly transmitted to the alarm center over the municipal system.

o Parallel telephone system - does not interconnect with a municipal alarm circuit. The alarm is transmitted directly to the alarm center over a municipal telephone circuit that serves no other purpose.

§ Remote Station System:

· Similar to auxiliary system but is connected to the fire department telecommunication center directly or through answering service by some other means besides the municipal fire alarm box system.

· Transmits coded or non-coded signal. Non-coded system allowed only when single occupancy is protected by the system.

· Up to five facilities may be protected by on coded system.

§ Proprietary System:

· Used to protect large commercial and industrial buildings, high rises, and groups of commonly owned buildings in a single location.

· Each building or area has own system that is wired into common receiving station at facility.

· Receiving station is constantly staffed by representatives of the occupant.

§ Central Station System:

· Similar to proprietary system except that the receiving point is offsite contracted service point called a central station.

· Property and station connected by supervised telephone lines.

· Home alarms are an example

§ ADA entitles citizens to equal service.

§ Communications need to receive calls from specialized equipment.

§ Keyboard uses text messages rather than voice.

§ Reports of an emergency may be received at fire station.

§ Firefighter must obtain information.

§ Communication center must be notified.

o Emergency Services Deployment:

§ Once an emergency is reported, action must be taken.

§ Most response organizations have a pre-assigned standard response.

§ Communication centers have deployment plans.

§ Deployment based on apparatus, equipment and personnel available.

§ Deployment may be done manually or through computers.

§ Next step is to notify responders.

§ Several methods exist.

§ Some departments use mobile data terminals.

· Computers mounted in apparatus.

· Dispatch information displayed on screen.

· Units can communicate with dispatch by pushing buttons.

o Traffic Control Systems:

§ Some jurisdictions use emergency preemption systems to control traffic signals.

§ They provide a safe transition to a priority right-of-way for emergency vehicles.

§ System designed to recognize emergency vehicle and change traffic control signal.

o Radio Systems and Procedures:

§ Radio system is primary link between field units and communications center.

§ Radio frequencies commonly used by the fire service are:

· VHF low band (33-46 MHz)

· VHF high band (150-174 MHz)

· UHF (450-460 MHz)

§ FCC monitors frequencies.

§ 800 MHz range frequencies have also been allocated.

§ All personnel must be able to talk properly over the radio.

§ A clear and concise message is important.

§ Some departments use “10-codes” while others use clear speech.

o Arrival Reports:

§ First arriving unit establishes command and provides initial report.

§ Command can be transferred as needed.

§ Status reports should be given regularly during large incidents.

§ Some SOPs call for “time marking” incidents at regular intervals.

o Records:

§ Proper documentation and record keeping must be maintained for all responses.

§ Telephone and radio traffic may be kept in manual log book or recording device.

§ Fire reports are considered public records.

§ Most states have minimum data that must be recorded and maintained.

o Receiving Reports via Automatic Alarm Systems:

§ Automatic alarm monitoring systems are typically comprised of five common types:

1. Local protective signaling system: an alarm system operating in the protected premises.

2. Auxiliary protective signaling system: an alarm system that utilizes a municipal fire alarm box to transmit a fire alarm from a protected property to a fire communications center.

3. Remote station protective signaling system: an alarm system that connects a protected premise over leased telephone lines to a remote station such as a fire communications center.

4. Central station protective signaling system: an alarm system that connects a protected premise to a privately owned monitoring site that monitors the lines constantly for any indication of fire or other trouble signals.

5. Proprietary protective signaling system: an alarm system that protects contiguous or non contiguous properties with common ownership from a location on the protected property.

o 3 Basic Types of Fixed Temperature Alarm Initiating Devices:

§ Bi metallic strip or disk.

§ Soft metal alloy or thermal plastic resin.

§ Device using expansion of heated solvents.

o Basic Types of Initializing Alarm Sensors:

§ Manually activated.

§ Thermal sensitive.

§ Visible/invisible product of combustion sensors.

§ Flame detectors.

§ Water detectors.

Chapter 4 “Fire Behavior”

Definition of Heat – A form of energy associated with the motion of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid or fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection and through empty space by radiation.
Definition of Fire – A rapid consistent chemical change that releases heat and light and is accompanied by flame, especially the exothermic oxidation of a combustible substance.
Classes of fire:

Classes of fire are essentially predicated on the fuel type. However, classification follows the same track as the extinguishment method.
Class A – ordinary combustible, wood, plastic etc
Class B – liquid, grease or gas.
Class C – electricity
Class D – metals (magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, potassium and calcium)
Class K - cooking oils

Fire Triangle Tetrahedron – The four components needed for fire. They are Oxygen, Fuel, Heat and Chemical Reaction.
Measurements:

Measurement is an important part of firefighting.
Need to know common terms for heat, electricity, volume, length, energy output, concentrations, and weight.
Understanding measurements and limits for each on the fire ground is important.

Chemistry and Physics of Fire:

Universe made of matter.
Matter is never destroyed.
Matter may change form.
All living things are made of cells.
Cells are made up of compounds.
Compounds are made up of molecules.
Molecules are made up of two or more elements.
Substances that are or were living are referred to as organic.
Organic substances contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
A non-living substance can be considered organic if it’s made of chemicals that were once alive.
Organic compounds are made of various chemicals.
Chemicals are made up of a combination of molecules.
Molecules are joined and separated by bonding actions.
Combination and separation of molecules and atoms causes oxidation and combustion.
Atoms are made up of electrons, neutrons, & protons.
Neutrons and protons make up the center of the atom.
Electrons rotate around the nucleus.
Atoms that lack electron will be quick to link-up and form molecules.
Substances that are non-living, such as minerals, are referred to as inorganic substances.
For the most part, only organic materials burn.
A “bond” holds molecules together.

Endothermic Reaction:

When molecules are joined heat is absorbed.
Known as endothermic reaction.

Exothermic Reaction:

When bonds break, heat is released.
Known as an exothermic reaction.

Oxidizer:

Oxidizer acts as a catalyst in the breakdown of otherwise stable molecules.
An oxidizer can pull apart a molecule and break the bond that existed.
The oxidation process is evident during combustion.

Sources of Heat:

Heat
is an energy source that powers the universe.
can neither be created nor destroyed as its an energy source
The four sources of heat are chemical, mechanical, electrical and nuclear.
Chemical Heat:

Most common source of heat.
Anything that burns does so through an exothermic reaction.
Pyrolysis is decomposition or transformation of a compound caused by heat.

Mechanical Heat:

Friction causes heat that can reach levels hot enough to ignite other combustibles
Build up of heat from friction often causes machinery fires.
The source of heat has to be stopped when extinguishing a fire.

Electrical Heat:

Most recognized source of heat
An electrical current can generate heat.
Electricity is a flow of electrons from and area of greater concentration to a lesser.
Places w/ large quantities of electrons are negatively charged.
Places w/ a lack of electrons are positively charged.
Conductors allow flow of electrons.
One electron jumps onto an atom which releases another move to the next atom.
Heat generated by conductors varies greatly.
Electrical energy is a heat source.

Nuclear Heat:

Generated the same way as other forms.
Radioactive material is very unstable.
Not much can be done to safely fight a nuclear fire.

Combustion:

Term often confused with fire.
Fire is a self-sustaining process that emits light and heat as byproducts of chemical reaction.
In combustion the released heat energy is reinvested in the process, causing continued reaction.
If there is continuous access to fuel, oxygen, and heat, the growth will accelerate.

Oxygen and its Effect on combustion:

Air contains about 21% oxygen.
Oxygen acts as catalyst to combustion.
This chemical reaction is called oxidation.
Oxygen can affect a material’s combustibility.
High concentration of oxygen can cause a material to combust spontaneously.

Vapor Pressure and Vapor Density:

Pressure is a continuous application of force by one body on another body that it is touching.
Vapor pressure is the measurable amount of pressure being exerted by a liquid substance as it converts to a gas and exerts pressure against a confined container.
Molecules in a closed container are constantly moving and colliding.
Some molecules escape into the air and fill the area (diffusion.)
If the weight of the gas is lighter than air, molecules escape (evaporation.)
Equilibrium is reached when the amount molecules freed equal those reabsorbed.
Air pressure changes at different altitudes.
At sea level, air pressure is 14.7 psi.
Gases that weigh less than the same volume of air will be lighter and tend to rise.
Gases that weigh greater than air will be heavier and tend to drop to low lying areas.
Vapor pressure is the force exerted on the sides of a closed container.
Vapor Density describes the weight of a gas as compared to normal air and is identified as a number. A normal concentration of air at sea level (14.7 psi) is designated as “1”
Gases that weight less than the same volume of air will rise and have a number less than 1. Gases that weigh more will sink and have a number greater than 1.

BLEVE – Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion

A BLEVE occurs when a vessel holding liquid ruptures from pressure being exerted on its sides when the liquid inside boils and the pressure exceeds the container’s ability to hold it.
Even a non-flammable liquid container can rupture.
A flammable liquid can create a great fireball.

Ignition:

When a substance heats up, burning gases are liberated.
When all ingredients of a self-sustaining chemical reaction are present, ignition occurs.
Ignition is the point when a material is able to sustain combustion from the heat generated by the material itself.

Boiling Point:

All materials exist as a solid, liquid, or gas.
Pressure and temperature affect the state of matter.
A change in temperature or pressure may change the form of the substance.

Flammable and Explosive Limits:

Combustible materials need certain requirements to oxidize.
Different concentrations of oxygen may be required
Gases can only ignite when certain concentrations are present.
When a gas concentration falls into a range that it can ignite, it is within its flammable or explosive limit.
Flammable limits can change with temperature and surrounding conditions.

Flammable Limits of Some Materials

	LOWER (LFL)	UPPER (UFL)
Acetone	2.6	12.8
Acetylene	2.5	100.0
Butane	1.9	8.5
Carbon monoxide	12..5	74
Ethyl Alcohol	3.3	19.0
Fuel Oil No. 1	0.7	5.0
Gasoline (92 Octane)	1.5	7.6
Hydrogen	4.0	75.0
Kerosene	0.7	5
Methane	5.0	15.0
Natural gas	6.5	17
Liquid Propane (LPG)	2.1	9.5

The Burning Process – Characteristics of Fire Behavior:

Burning process occurs in defined stages.
Various stages must be recognized and firefighting tactics adjusted.
Growth Stage:

Speed, growth and size of the fire depends on several factors;

Oxygen supply.
Fuel.
Container size.
Insulation.

Fully Developed Stage:

All contents within the perimeter of the fires boundaries are burning.
The speed and extent of a fully developed stage fire depends on amount of air.
In an outside fire, the amount of fuel available will determine the size of the fire.

Decay stage:

When all fuel is consumed, fire will begin to diminish.
The fire will begin to extinguish itself when fuel is exhausted.
These factors will dictate the tactics used when fighting the fire

Modes of Heat Transfer:

Heat is a byproduct of combustion.
Heat transfers its energy through;

Conduction

Transfer of heat from a hot object.
Transfer can be to another object or another part of the same object.
Molecules and atoms are excited resulting in the spread of heat.
Heat is conducted through different materials at different rates.
Density, time, and application of heat will affect rate of conduction.

Convection

Hot air rises, cool air sinks. In a fire this happens continuously in a rotating (bottom to top, top to bottom)
Air that is hotter than its surroundings rises.
Air that is cooler than its surroundings sinks.
As air is heated molecules push onto one another seeking space to expand.

Radiation

When combustion occurs, light traveling in waves is produced.
Light waves range from ultraviolet to infrared.
Electromagnetic forced in light waves travel across vacuums and land on remote objects.
Radiation is a major contributor to flashover.
Objects in the room reach their ignition temperature through this process.
The heat has to be kept from developing in order to prevent the fire from extending.
Example: Sun heats earth through radiation.

Thermal conductivity of Materials:

All matter will conduct heat.
The ability to conduct thermal energy depends on its density.
The less dense the object, the more difficult to conduct heat.

Physical State of Fuels and Effect on Combustion:

Matter is found in one of three states.

Solid:

Molecules in a solid material are packed closely together.
When heat is applied, molecules become agitated and collide with each other.
This causes molecules to break apart.
Heat produced causes additional molecules to break away, become a gas and combust.

Liquid:

Burning is dependent on the substances ability to place its molecules into suspension.
Can not burn unless it is in suspension
Acts as a heat sink and dissipate the introduced heat into cooler areas.
A rise in temperature leads to a boiling or flashpoint.

Gas:

Primed for combustion.
A ready state that will permit a chemical reaction.

Most fuels combust in gaseous state.
The physical state of matter can affect combustion.

Thermal Balance and Imbalance:

During combustion, heat is liberated.
Thermal balance and imbalance causes smoke to column and mushroom.
Heated air and smoke rise.
Ascent stops when thermal balance is reached, establishing equilibrium.
This causes a mushroom effect.

Theory of Fire Extinguishment:

To stop a fire, remove one of its essential ingredients.
Fire will collapse if missing one ingredient.
A fire will be extinguished, if:

Temperature is lowered.
Fuel is eliminated.
Oxygen is eliminated.
Chemical flame is repressed.

Flammable Liquids

Gasoline, Acetone
must have a flash point of less than 100° F / 38° C to be a flammable liquid

Combustible Liquids

Vegetable oil.
Must have a flash point of greater than 100° F / 38° C to be a combustible liquid

Hydrocarbons

Gasoline, fuel oils, petroleum

Polar Solvents

Mix with water

Natural Gas

Mostly methane
Lighter than air
Nontoxic asphyxiates
Naturally odorless
Pipe pressures from ¼ - 1000 psi
Explosive in concentrations between 6.5 & 17%

Liquid Petroleum (LPG)

Mainly propane
Heavier than air - seeks lowest point
Nontoxic asphyxiates
Naturally odorless - chemical added for odor
Distributed as pressurized bottled gas & cargo trucks
Stored in cylinders and tanks
Subject to BLEVE
Explosive concentrations between 2.1 & 9.5%
Do not operate main valves
If burning, do not extinguish
1 ½ times heavier than air

Wrap Up:

Combustion results from the actual chemical reaction of heat, fuel, and oxygen.
For the most part organic material will burn.
Heat sources are chemical, mechanical, electrical, and nuclear.
Burning process occurs in three stages: growth, fully developed, and decay.
Heat is transferred through conduction, convection, and radiation.
Fires are classified into different types and are extinguished differently.

Chapter 5 “Firefighter Safety”

Safety Issues:

It is important to understand what events and circumstances lead to injury.
Standards and regulations directly affect some of the training and tactics the fire service uses today.
Firefighters need to understand the importance of accident prevention steps.

Firefighter Injury and death causes:

One-half of all duty deaths and injuries occur at the incident site.
Other half occur while training, responding to/from an incident and other duties.
Heart attacks are the leading cause of death.
Trauma is the second leading cause of death.
Deaths are slowly decreasing.

Safety Standards and Regulations:

In 1970, OSHA was created.
OSHA is responsible for safety-related workplace regulations.
Regulations are part of CFR (code of Federal Regulations).
Firefighting did not fit OSHA procedures and processes.
Fire service wrote safety and health standard for the fire service.
NFPA 1500 written to help fire departments address safety issues.
While other NFPA standards address safety, NFPA 1500 focuses on safety issues.

Accident Prevention:

Any accident designed to break the accident chain is called an intervention.
Usually a reactive intervention.
Nine out of Ten NFPA’s are intervention.
Mitigation is designed to reduce the potential of creating an accident.
Mitigation is proactive.
The accident chain is made of five components:

The environment
Human factors
Equipment (apparatus, PPE, maintenance and serviceability)
The event (intersection of foregoing components)
The injury (human or property damage)

The Safety Triad:

Fire service operational environments are made up of :

Procedures:

Structure from which all incident activity begins.
Formal procedures are written as SOP’s or SOG’s.
Informal procedures are operations that are part of the routine but are not in writing.

Equipment:

Vast amounts of new equipment have been introduced into the fire service.
Most equipment designed to meet a safety standard.
Equipment must be maintained and serviced.
Guidelines are often developed for essential equipment.
Guidelines should include:

Selection.
Use.
Cleaning and decontamination.
Storage.
Inspections.
Repairs.
Criteria for retirement.

Personnel:

Human factors often cited as cause of injuries and death.
Training, fitness/health, and attitude impact safety.
Proper training and drills will prevent injuries.
A firefighter’s body must be able to handle stress.
Mental health is also an important aspect.
Many factors affect safety attitudes including:

Department’s safety culture.
Departments history
Example set by others.

Create a positive safety attitude:

Practice good safety habits.
Learn from others.
Be vigilant.

Each component must be addressed to mitigate injuries.
Training:

Regular training is important!!

Exercise:

Regular exercise is essential to keep up with the demand of the job.

Firefighter Safety Responsibilities:

Firefighter safety is dependent on the efforts of everyone.
This includes:

The Department:

Safety ultimately rests on department’s leadership.
NFPA 1500 outlines occupational safety and health.
Proper and expected levels of procedures or behaviors must be defined.
SOP’s or SOG’s should be in place.
Proper selection of equipment is important.
NFPA has standards addressing equipment.
Departments should deliver hazardous awareness training.
All training is designed for safer operations.
Training is the best means to identify hazards that will be faced.

The Team:

Team approach very important to ensure safety.
As a team, the following should be followed:

Use the Incident Management System.
Work together and remain intact.
Look after each other.

Working as a team reduces the chance of injury.
Remember: the separation of members within a team is a contributing factor to firefighter fatalities.

The Individual Firefighter:

You hold the final key to safety.
Do not try to work while injured.
Stay within the Incident Management System.
Do not perform tasks not trained to do.
Training should be done ahead of time.
Working alone endangers you and the team.

Chapter 6 “Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)”

· PPE provides minimum protection.

· Proper streams, zoning, and sound tactics provide a greater measure of safety.

· PPE, first thing put on and last thing taken off (First and last line of defense).

· PPE can take many forms.

· Each piece of equipment has limitations.

· Most injuries occur when firefighters fail to properly don or secure PPE.

· Personal Protective Equipment Factors:

o Firefighter PPE has evolved significantly.

o All PPE and equipment worn by a firefighter should meet current application standards.

o The federal government, through OSHA, is involved in PPE use.

o EPA, CDCP, ANSI, ASTM and NIOSH also are involved with PPE.

· Types of Personal Protective Equipment:

o NFPA has developed standards for:

§ Structural firefighting.

§ Proximity firefighting.

§ Wildland firefighting.

o Structural PPE:

§ Commonly referred to as bunkers.

§ Made of three layers: outer shell, vapor barrier, and thermal barrier.

§ Layers help meet thermal protective criteria.

§ Thermal protective performance refers to the time a wearer has before a 2^nd degree burn will be sustained.

§ TPP for structural firefighting coat is 35 seconds.

§ Helmets:

· Helmets originally designed to shed water and avoid hot embers.

· Today’s helmets are impact resistant, provide thermal insulation, earflaps, chinstraps and eye protection.

§ Gloves:

· Gloves are essential in the structural ensemble.

· NFPA standards require that gloves provide thermal protection and protection from cuts and punctures.

§ Other Components of Structural PPE:

· Firefighting has a growing choice of approved footwear.

· While they must all meet NFPA standards, each type has its advantages and disadvantages.

· Structural protective hoods have a TPP less than that of a structural coat.

o Proximity Firefighting PPE:

§ Ensemble is most often associated with aircraft rescue and firefighting.

§ Must meet more stringent heat reflection and wearer insulation standards.

§ Aluminized fabric allows wearer to get closer to fire that emits extreme heat.

§ Also features a full face shield that is coated with a reflective material.

o Wildland Firefighting PPE:

§ Wildland conditions are unique:

· Often outdoors.

· Requires prolonged physical efforts.

· Working under high ambient temperatures.

§ Also know as brush gear.

§ Is lightweight and provides breathe ability, firm ankle support, and hot ember protection.

§ Lightweight jacket/shirt and trousers are typically made of a fire resistant material.

§ Lace-up leather boots protect from cuts, snakebites, and burns.

§ Fire shelter is another component of wildland PPE.

§ Web gear is also essential.

o Miscellaneous PPE Components:

§ Firefighters use different forms of eye and hearing protection.

§ Personal alert safety system (PASS).

§ Firefighters are often required to wear a work uniform.

§ NFPA standard 1975 addresses station/work uniforms for firefighters.

· Care and Maintenance of Personal Protective Equipment:

o NFPA requires all care and instructions to be clearly labeled.

o Equipment exposed to biological and chemical contaminants must be decontaminated.

o PPE should be routinely inspected.

o Manufacturers need to provide instructions and information on:

§ Safety considerations.

§ Limitations and use procedures.

§ Marking recommendations and restrictions.

§ Warranty information.

§ Sizing/adjustment procedures.

§ Recommended storage procedures.

§ Inspection frequency and details.

§ Donning and doffing procedures.

· PPE Effectiveness: “Street Smarts”

o PPE only effective if worn properly.

o Good PPE habits and a positive attitude can minimize injuries.

o Taking shortcuts with PPE can lead to injury.

o Good habits include fast and proper donning of PPE.

o Keep PPE clean.

o Practice team checks.

o Position PPE for rapid donning.

o Always use prudent judgment.

o PPE includes flashlight, tool, radio, earplugs, eye protection, accountability tag and a partner.

o Practice proper donning and doffing.

o Stay hydrated.

Chapter 7 “Self Contained Breathing Apparatus”

· Normal oxygen content in air is 21%.

· Oxygen deficient environment defined as 19.5% or less oxygen rate in air.

· IDLH – A condition “that poses a threat of exposure to contaminants when that exposure is likely to cause death or immediate or delayed permanent adverse health effects or prevent escape from that environment.

Effects of Hypoxia (Reduced Oxygen)

Oxygen %	Symptoms
21	None - normal conditions
19.5	OSHA definition as oxygen deficient
17	Some impairment of muscular coordination Increased respiratory rate
12	Dizziness, headache, rapid fatigue
9	Unconsciousness
7 to 6	Death within a few minutes from respiratory Failure and concurrent heart failure

Toxic Gases formed as Products of Combustion:

o Carbon Monoxide (CO) IDLH: - 1,200-1,500 PPM.

o Hydrogen Chloride (HCI) IDLH - 50 PPM.

o Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) IDLH - 50 PPM

o Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) IDLH - 40,000 PPM.

o Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂) IDLH - 20 PPM.

o Phosgene (COCI₂) IDLH - 25 PPM.

o Ammonia (NH₃) IDLH - 300 PPM.

o Chlorine (CL₂) IDLH - 10 PPM.

· Conditions Requiring Respiratory Protection:

o Oxygen Deficient Environments:

§ Below 17% oxygen, body responds by increasing respiration rate.

§ Oxygen deficiency causes muscular impairment, confusion and eventually death.

o Elevated Temperatures and Smoke:

§ Inhalation of heated gases can cause fluid build up in the lungs and create long term irreversible damage.

§ Combustion by products are very irritating to the body

§ High temperatures can also cause severe burn to the respiratory system.

· Effects of Toxic Gases and Environments:

o Toxic gases are produced by combustion.

o These gases affect various body systems.

o Hazardous materials can increase the risk to firefighters.

o Without SCBA, firefighter will not survive.

o Repeated exposure to toxins has long term effects.

§ Carbon monoxide:

· CO is one of the most lethal gases produced by fire.

· CO attaches to blood almost 218 times easier than O_2.

· CO prevents distribution of O₂ in the body causing hypoxia.

· Legal Requirements for SCBA Use:

· OSHA - Respiratory Protection Standard Title 29 CFR 1910.134.

· 29 CFR 1910.134 standards for all entries into IDLH atmospheres.

· NFPA standards (1500, 1404, 1981).

· NIOSH 42 CFR Part 184.

o Title 29 CFR Section 1910.134:

o NFPA 1500: Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program:

· Limitations Of SCBA:

o SCBA Design and Size:

§ Visibility limited.

§ Will add 23 to 35 pounds of weight to the fire fighter.

§ Limits the mobility and agility of the firefighter.

§ Voice is muffled and hard to understand.

§ Quantity of air limited.

o Limitations of the SCBA User:

§ Physical:

· Agility.

· Proper conditioning.

· Regular facial features and contours.

§ Medical:

· Neurological soundness.

· Muscular/skeletal soundness.

· Cardiovascular soundness.

· Respiratory soundness.

§ Mental:

· Adequate training in equipment use.

· Confidence in self and equipment.

· Emotional stability.

· No claustrophobia or other phobias.

· Types of SCBA:

o Open-Circuit Self contained Breathing Apparatus:

§ Exhaled air vented to outside atmosphere.

§ Open-circuit SCBA is the most common for the fire service.

· The Four Major Components Of The SCBA:

o Backpack and Harness Assembly:

o Cylinder Assembly:

§ SCBA Cylinders vary in material and type.

§ USDOT regulates compressed gas cylinders.

§ Quality of the compressed breathing gas has a direct effect on the performance of the SCBA.

o Regulator Assembly:

§ Regulator is attached to the face piece or waist strap.

§ Regulator has a pressure gauge.

§ Regulator activated by user’s breathing action.

§ Maintains constant positive pressure airflow to face piece

§ Units have low air alarm supply warning system

§ NFPA 1981 requires two type of alarm.

o Face Piece Assembly:

o Annual face piece test required.

o Exhalation valve keeps toxic gas out.

o Closed-Circuit Self contained Breathing Apparatus:

§ Exhaled air filtered and re-circulated.

§ Not used for regular firefighting operations.

§ Commonly used for hazmat operations and below-grade rescues.

§ System contains cylinder, filter system, regulator and valves.

o Both types of SCBA are built to NIOSH and NFPA standards.

· We use Open-Circuit, Positive Pressure, Supply-On-Demand SCBA.

· Donning and Doffing SCBA:

o Always perform a safety check first

o Two methods:

§ Over the head method.

§ Coat method.

o SCBA also mounts in seats.

o Never stand to don while apparatus is moving.

o After securing SCBA, don face piece.

o Proper donning of face piece is essential.

o After exiting hazardous area, SCBA should be removed.

o Remove face piece while waiting for assignment.

o Local protocol may require rehab after assignment.

· SCBA Operation and Emergency Procedures:

o Firefighters must be proficient in:

§ Safe use of SCBA.

§ Donning and doffing procedures.

§ Individual limitations.

§ Limitations of SCBA.

o Safe Use of SCBA:

§ Firefighters must be physically fit for respirator use.

§ Accountability system should be in place.

§ Must work in teams of two at a minimum.

§ OSHA “two in/two out regulation.

§ PASS device must be activated.

§ SCBA operations should include rehab time.

§ Hydration important during rehab.

§ Air consumption will vary for all/

§ Never remove face piece in a contaminated environment.

§ Low air alarm on one team member means the whole team exits.

o Operating in a Hostile Environment:

§ Always check in/out with accountability officer.

§ Always remain low.

§ Check the environment.

§ Never remove your face piece.

§ Be aware of your location at all times.

§ Ventilate as you advance.

§ Check outside openings.

§ Maintain contact with team members.

§ Never enter a hostile environment alone.

o Restricted Openings:

§ Never remove face piece!

§ Loosen straps and rotate SCBA under arm.

§ Remove harness and hold SCBA as a last resort.

§ Do not lose contact with SCBA.

§ Maintain control of unit.

§ Practice procedures regularly.

o Emergency Procedures with SCBA:

§ Remain calm.

§ Immediately exit hazardous area.

§ Activate pass device.

§ Announce your emergency over radio.

§ If regulator or face piece fails, use bypass valve.

§ Buddy breathing is only a last resort.

· Inspection and Maintenance of SCBA:

o SCBA must be ready to go at all times.

o Inspections should be done routinely.

o Remove unit and check it after each use.

o Monthly operational check should be done.

o Less than full cylinder should be serviced.

o Servicing SCBA Cylinders:

§ Air must be tested to be certified.

§ Cylinders must have current hydrostatic test date.

§ Fill stations must have fragmentation containment devices.

§ Always follow manufacturer’s recommendation.

§ Remember fill rates will vary.

Chapter 8 “Fire Extinguishers”

· Portable fire extinguishers are designed to fight small incipient fires.

· Firefighters must know how to use extinguishers and be able to teach others.

· Proper instruction can improve department effectiveness and reduce damage costs.

· Fire extinguishers come in a variety of types and sizes.

· Firefighters should know the extinguishers carried on the apparatus.

· Citizens will often request information and training on the use of extinguishers.

· Firefighters should be capable of answering questions regarding fire extinguishers.

Fire Classification and Risk:

The type and nature of the burning material (fuel) defines the fire.

Class A: ordinary combustibles (wood, paper, rubber
Class B: flammable liquids or gas (must have a flash point of less than 100^o F to be a flammable liquid)
Class C: energized electrical (if not energized it’s class A)
Class D: combustible metals
Class K: flammable cooking oils

Types of Fire Extinguishers:

Many factors need to be considered before using an extinguisher:

Type and amount of fuel.
User and occupancy.
Building construction.
Environmental conditions.
Type of equipment being protected.

Types of Extinguishing Agents:

Water is the basic agent for Class A Fires.
Water-based foam extinguishers for class B fires have either AFFF (aqueous film forming foam) or FFFP (film forming flouro protein).
CO₂ is an inert gas stored under pressure.
CO₂is effective on Class B or C fires.
Dry chemical agents are particles propelled by a gaseous medium.
There are three categories of dry chemicals:

Sodium bicarbonate based (regular dry-chem, Class B & C)>
Potassium based (regular dry-chem, Class B & C).
Multi purpose (Class A, B & C).

Wet chemicals are water based solutions.
Dry powder used on Class D fires.
Wet chemical are used for Class K fires.
Clean agents have replaced Halons.
Clean agents do not conduct electricity or leave a residue.
Clean agents do not conduct electricity or leave a residue.
There are two classes: Halocarbon agents and inerting gasses.

Kinds of Extinguishers:

Pump-type extinguishers are hand pumped devices.
Pressurized extinguishers operate by expelling gas that propels the agent out.
Cartridge-operated extinguishers used for dry chemical and most dry powder class D extinguishers.

Rating Systems of Portable Extinguishers:

Each class of fuel is subject to a separate type of rating test.

Class A rating test uses wooden cribbing test.
Class B rating test uses a pan of flammable liquid.
Class C rating test only involves conductivity of the agent and the nozzle or hose and nozzle combination.

Limitations of Portable Extinguishers:

Extinguishers have limited capabilities.
They are designed and rated for certain types and sizes of fire.
Wrong extinguisher will create greater problems.
Need to use right extinguisher for the fire present.

Extinguisher Operation:

Pull the pin.
Aim the nozzle.
Squeeze the trigger.
Sweep the nozzle.

Care and maintenance of Portable Extinguishers:

Carefully inspect before placing in service.
Should be periodically removed from bracket.
Dry chemical extinguishers should be inverted occasionally.
Clean dirt and grit to maintain good working order.

Obsolete Extinguishers:

Soda acid.
Chemical foam (except film-forming).
Vaporizing liquids.
Cartridge-operated water or loaded stream.
Copper or brass extinguishers.
Firefighters should never operate obsolete extinguishers.

Inspection Requirements:

Should be checked every 30 days.
First perform visual inspection.
Pin seal should be in place.
Gauge should register proper pressure.
Some extinguishers such as co₂ only checked by weighing.
Weight stamped on cylinder.
Check for hydrostatic testing.

Chapter 9 “Water Supply”

· Recommended water main size is 6” for residential, 8” for industrial.

· Fire flow capacity is dictated by water supply.

o Sources of Water Supply:

§ Ground Water:

· Most of the Earths water supply is groundwater.

· Ground water usually results from rain.

· Groundwater may collect in pockets called aquifers and rise as springs.

· Water may reach surface through drilling and pumping.

· Water must have enough pressure for firefighting.

· Domestic and farm wells are insufficient for fire fighting

§ Surface Water:

· Surface water is the world’s most common source.

§ Mobile Water Supply Apparatus:

· Most engines today have at least 500 gallon tanks.

· Water weighs 8.33 pounds per gallon

· Tenders have tanks ranging from 1,000 to 8,000 gallons

· Some tenders may have a small booster or attack pump of at least 250 GPM, a fire pump of at least 750 GPM or a transfer pump of at least 250 GPM

§ Tanks, Ponds and Cisterns:

· Other developed sources are water tanks, pond and cisterns

§ Need to know where water comes from and how it gets from that point to the fire scene.

§ Many natural and man made factors affect water sources.

§ Weather is the greatest factor

o Water Distribution systems:

§ After treatment, water goes into the distribution system

§ Water is supplied in three ways:

· Gravity fed:

· Pumped system:

· Combination pumped-gravity system:

o Providing a good combination system involves providing reliable duplicated equipment and proper size storage containers that are strategically located.

o Fire Hydrants:

o In general, hydrants should not be spaced more than 300 ft apart in high-value districts

o Should be inspected yearly

Hydrant Classification:

· Class C: red and less than 500 GPM

· Class B: orange 500-999 GPM

· Class A: green 1000-1499 GPM

· Class 2A: light blue 1500 GPM or greater

§ Two Major Hydrant Types Are:

· Wet Barrel:

o Have water in the barrel

o Used in non freezing areas

o Outlets operate independently

· Dry Barrel:

o Used in areas that have freezing areas

o Valve at base of hydrant controls water flow to all outlets

o Valve should be all the way open or all the way closed

§ Dry hydrant is a piping system for drafting from a static water source.

· Serves as connection point for drafting

· A pipe system with a pumper suction at one end and a strainer at the other

§ Specialty Hydrants:

· Wall Hydrant:

o Mounted on side of building for direct connection to water supply

· Flush Type Hydrant:

o Valves Associated with Water Distribution systems:

§ Usually non-indicating type gate valves and check valves found in public water system

§ Gate valves are butterfly valves

§ Private water valves are of the indicating type

o Rural Water Supply:

§ Rural water supply operation can occur anywhere

§ Rural water supply should be understood by all

§ Rural water supply operations require careful coordination and control

§ Water supply officer should be part of ICS

§ Three key components to shuttle operation are: Fill Site, Pump Capacity and Dump Site. Tender with highest pump capacity should be at the dump site.

§ NFPA 1901 requires that apparatus on level ground be capable of dumping or filling at least 1,000 GPM

· Portable Water Tanks:

o Tenders are designed to transport water

o Must be able to quickly drop off water and return to the fill site

o Each tender should have a portable water tank

· Tender Operation:

o A tender operation is a shuttle operation

o Dump site is where the water is delivered

o Site should be able to unload multiple tenders

o Site should have a turnaround area, operational

o Site should be safe for personnel

o Fill site should be properly staffed

o Shuttle operations control fire flow capacity

o Increased efficiency, more tenders, or larger tanks can help increase flow

o Fire flow rate

· Time to fill tender +

· Time to drop water +

· Travel time to and from dump site

· = Quantity of water carried

§ Four basic methods of dumping tenders or tankers:

· Gravity Dumping through 10” or 12” dump valves

· Jet Valves using venture effect

· Apparatus mounted pump that offload water

· A combination of the above

o Pressure associated With Water Distribution Systems:

§ In fire service terms pressure is usually thought of as the velocity of water through a conduit be it pipe or hose

§ All of the earth’s water is under pressure

§ Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 PSI at sea level

§ Drafting takes advantage of atmospheric pressure

§ Pressure is the force or weight of water measured over an area

§ Pressure varies according to friction

§ In the US, average water pressure is 65-80 PSI

§ Pressure greater than 150 PSI can damage plumbing

§ Recommended low residual pressure when pumping from a hydrant is 20 PSI

§ Fire departments need to know pressures and capacities of water distribution systems

§ A 1 ft column of water 1” square weighs .433 pounds creating a pressure at the bottom of .433 PSI

§ Pressure can also be expressed as feet of head with the 1 ft column having a head of 1 foot and 2.31 feet of head equaling 1 PSI

§ Different pressures are

· Static:

o Stored potential energy that is available to force water through conduit

o Defined as the normal pressure existing

· Normal Operating Pressure:

o Pressure found in water distribution system during periods of normal consumption demands

· Residual Pressure:

o Pressure that is not used to overcome friction or gravity while forcing water through a conduit

· Flow Pressure:

o Forward velocity pressure at a discharge opening while water is flowing

o Testing Operability And Flow Of Hydrants:

§ Testing should be done annually on fire hydrants

§ First test involve operability of hydrant

§ Remove all caps and check threads and gaskets for damage

§ Check all valves on hydrant and allow water to flow

§ Check drain valve on dry barrel hydrant

§ On a dry hydrant, visually inspect piping, caps and gaskets

§ Flow test and back flushing of hydrant are last parts of testing dry hydrants

§ Flow test should be conducted during normal operations of water supply system

§ One flow test is a fire ground method using gauges on the pumper

§ Other test is done during planning and requires

o Determining Static, Residual And Flow Pressures:

§ Fire ground flow testing involves connecting pumper to

§ Once water is flowing, intake gauge is read to get residual pressure

§ Process continues until all hydrants are tested

§ Next step involves calculation of discharges for hydrants tested

o Obstructions And Damage To Fire Hydrants And Mains:

§ Encrustations and blockage of piping by minerals or organisms can restrict water flow

§ Hydrants also subject to damage by vandals

§ Damage from improper actions by firefighters may also occur

§ Failing to open or close valves fully or cross threading connections results in damage

· Wrap Up:

o Water is the most common extinguishing agent

o Must understand relationship between water supplied and amount needed

o Firefighters must be able to use mobile water supply

Chapter 10 “Fire Hose and Appliances”

· Hose is the tool used to move water.

· Firefighters must know how to store hose on the apparatus and how to deploy it.

· Fire hose is a flexible conduit used to move water, or other agent, from a source to the fire.

· Couplings, adapters and appliances are used to connect hose.

· Today, many departments use National standard Hose threads.

· Other departments use adapters to make connections to standard threaded couplings.

· Adapter and appliances have been created or made lighter to make firefighting easier.

o Construction of Fire Hose:

§ Fire hose has two components:

· Hose.

· Couplings.

§ Three types of hose construction:

· Wrapped.

· Braided.

· Woven. (Most common)

§ Hose is divided into the following categories:

· Attack.

· Supply.

· Hard suction.

· Occupant use.

· Forestry.

§ Booster lines have a limited flow rate of up to 30 gpm.

§ Attack hose is connected to nozzles and distributors and various appliances.

§ Attack hose is usually service tested at 250 psi.

§ Medium diameter hose is 2 ½” - 3”

§ Supply hose (LDH) is 3 ½” - 5” and pressure should not exceed 185 psi.

§ Hard suction hose is rubber or plastic coated hose with a plastic wire or helix.

§ Soft suction hose (soft sleeve) is used in standpipe systems.

§ Forestry hose is specially designed for use in wildland firefighting.

o Care and Maintenance of Fire Hose:

§ Care begins with proper placement and folding.

§ Hose bed should allow for circulation of air.

§ Hose should be dried before folding.

§ Newer synthetic hose can be loaded wet.

§ Avoid laying hose over sharp or rough corners.

§ Do not allow traffic to run over hose.

§ Clean dirt and grit from hose.

§ Avoid heat, embers, chemicals, gasoline and oil.

§ Prevent hose from freezing.

§ Any damaged hose should be service tested prior to being returned to service.

§ Excessive water pressure and slamming a valve open or shut will damage a hose.

§ Hose should be rinsed and dried prior to being placed back in service.

§ Stored hose also requires maintenance.

§ Care also involves regular inspection.

§ Outer cover and coupling should be checked for damage as it is reloaded.

o Types of Hose Coupling:

§ Couplings allow hose and appliances to be joined.

§ Couplings are divided into two types:

· Threaded.

· Non-threaded

§ Threaded couplings use a screw thread.

§ Non-threaded couplings use locks or cams.

§ Threaded couplings have male threads and female threads.

§ Fire hoses have blunt end threads.

§ Both male and female ends have Higbee cuts and indicators.

§ Threaded couplings have lugs.

§ The three types of lugs are:

· Pin

· Rocker

· Recessed

§ Male coupling has lugs on the shank.

§ Non-Threaded Couplings:

· Use locks or cams to secure connection.

· Couplings are aligned and twisted to lock.

· Storz couplings are the most popular.

· Some couplings use handles or lugs.

· Rocker lugs are the most common.

· Handles are typically used on hard and soft sleeves.

o Hose Tools and Appliances:

§ Hose tools help move or operate hoselines.

§ Appliances are devices that water flows through, including adapters and connectors.

§ Tools include rope hose tools, wrenches, rollers, hose clamps and other items.

§ Various types of valves are also used to control water flow and distribution.

§ Tools & Appliances:

· Rope hose tool.

· Spanner wrench.

· Hydrant wrench.

· Hose roller.

· Hose clamp.

· Hose jacket.

· Hose bridge.

· Hose cart.

· Double couplings.

· Increaser/reducer.

· Gate valve.

· Intake relief valve.

· Wye.

· Siamese.

· Hydrant valve.

· Strainer.

· Distributor pipe.

· Hose cap.

o Coupling and Uncoupling Hose:

§ Coupling:

· Foot tilt.

· Over-the-hip.

· Two person method.

§ Uncoupling:

· Spanner wrenches.

· Knee-press.

· Stiff-arm.

o Hose Rolls:

§ Hose is rolled for storage or to have it ready for use.

§ Several options:

· Straight/storage hose roll.

· Single-donut roll.

· Twin or double donut roll.

o Hose Carries:

§ Drain and carry method.

§ Shoulder loop carry.

§ Hose/street drag.

o Hose Loads:

o Hose loads should consider the need to have the right hose coupling or adapter at the end that will be furthest from the engine.

o Some hose loads are:

§ Dutchman:

§ Accordion load: ideal for making shoulder loads.

§ Flat load: most common, used for supply and some attack lines.

§ Horseshoe load:

§ Straight finish load: (finish loads can be used for assisting in laying supply or attack lines. Pre-connected loads are usually used for attack lines.)

§ Reverse horseshoe:

§ Minuteman: pre-connected load using narrow section of hose bed.

§ Triple-layer: most popular load, easiest to use.

§ Gasner Bar Pack: the standard wildland hose load.

§ Modified Gasner Bar Pack: the standard wildland hose load with a Wye attached.

o Advancing Hoselines:

§ Into structures.

§ Up and down stairs.

§ Using a standpipe system.

§ Working hose off a ladder.

o Establishing a Water Supply Line:

§ Several methods exist for establishing a water supply depending on:

· Type of water source.

· Hydrant style.

· Hose lays used.

· Pumper use at water source.

o Extending Hoselines:

§ Firefighters should be familiar with techniques used to extend hoselines.

§ The preferred method is the use of a break-apart nozzle.

§ The other method is the use of a hose clamp.

§ Clamp must be used carefully and cautiously.

o Replacing Sections of Burst Line:

§ Bursting of a hose section is very dangerous.

§ It can cause personal injury and additional property damage.

§ Hoseline must be shut down to remove the section replaced.

o Hose Lay Procedures:

§ Supply lines and the hose beds on apparatus are designed to use one of three lays:

· Forward lay:

o From the hydrant to the fire

· Reverse lay:

o From the fire to the hydrant

· Split lay:

o Refers to any one of a number of way to lay multiple supply hoses.

o Deploying Master Stream Devices:

§ Water applicators capable of flowing over 350 gallons of water per minute.

§ A wagon pipe is a permanently mounted stream device.

§ A deluge set is not permanently mounted.

§ A monitor type device is a permanently mounted master stream device with a prepiped waterway on an aerial ladder or platform.

§ A ladder pipe is a non-permanently mounted device needing a hoseline.

§ Master stream devices are rigged and then charged.

§ For every foot of vertical reach needed the device is moved one foot away.(Solid stream tip.)

§ For horizontal reach, each pound of pressure equals 1 foot of reach.

§ Maximum reach is usually 3 floors.

§ A wagon pipe is a permanently mounted device.

§ The monitor pipe has a direct discharge.

§ Deluge set on top of an engine may be prepiped.

§ When using a deluge on the ground, intakes should be facing the fire building.

§ A ladder pipe needs a hoseline for rigging it up a ladder and another for supply.

o Service Testing of Fire Hose:

§ Fire hose is tested prior to being placed in use and then retested annually.

§ A record keeping system must be used.

§ Testing begins with a visual inspection.

§ Check for thread damage.

§ Check couplings

§ Service testing involves testing hose under pressure.

§ Pressure testing is designed to check for hose failure.

§ A hose test valve is placed on the discharge pump to limit flow rate of the water.

§ Hoselines are attached to the pumping device and pressure tested.

§ No more than 300 feet of hose should be tested at once.

§ Follow local SOPs for testing.

§ Two types of testing fire hose are:

· Service testing:

o Physical nature of hose

· Acceptance testing:

o Pressure test

o WRAP-UP:

§ Fire hose, adapters, and appliances allow firefighters to move water.

§ It is important to know how to use the various appliances and tools.

§ Appliances and tools provide firefighters greater abilities to facilitate fire suppression.

§ Proper techniques of connecting, advancing, and operating tools must be understood.

Chapter 11 “Nozzles, Fire Streams and Foam”

· Fires are usually extinguished using water to cool the heat produced.

· Foam is used to extinguish fuels where water is ineffective.

· Water and foam are delivered using nozzles.

· Selection of the proper nozzle is important to successfully fight the fire.

Definition of Fire Streams:

§ A fire stream is water or other agent as it leaves the nozzle towards a target.

§ Fire streams must be properly developed and aimed.

§ Poor streams allow the fire to burn.

§ A proper stream has sufficient volume, pressure, direction, and reaches the target.

§ Firefighters need to understand fire streams and their application.

o Nozzles:

§ Nozzles are appliances to apply water.

§ There are two basic types of nozzles:

· Solid stream nozzle.

· Fog nozzle.

§ Combination nozzles can deliver both patterns.

§ It is important to be aware of advantages and disadvantages of both.

§ Factors in nozzle selection include:

· Nozzle pressure.

· Nozzle flow.

· Nozzle reach.

· Nozzle reaction.

· Stream shape.

o Solid Tip or Stream:

§ Deliver an unbroken or solid stream of water.

§ Delivers water as a solid mass.

§ Solid mass breaks the further the water travels.

§ Flow is a factor of the tip size.

§ Excessive or reduced nozzle pressures have adverse effects on stream performance.

§ Handline tips are from 3⁄4” to 11⁄4” at 50 psi.

§ Master stream tips are 1” and larger at 80 psi.

§ Handlines can reach over 70’ and master streams about 100’.

§ Have less effect on a room’s thermal balance.

§ Have good penetration.

o Fog Nozzles:

§ Deliver a fixed or combination pattern.

§ Fixed spray patterns are of the impinging design.

§ Constant or set volume nozzles only allows pattern adjustment.

§ Variable combination fog nozzle patterns vary from straight stream to wide fog.

§ Adjustable nozzles allow for selection of flow and pattern.

§ Operate from 50 to 100 psi.

§ Provide good reach that varies with pattern.

§ Also provide good penetration.

§ Produce more steam.

§ Can be used to assist in horizontal ventilation

o Straight Stream:

§ Pattern creates a hollow type stream.

§ As stream passes through nozzle baffle, air goes into the stream reducing its reach.

§ Newer nozzle design have compensated for this.

Special Purpose Nozzle:

§ Developed for use in limited types of situations.

§ Cellar nozzles and Bresnan distributors are effective for basement and cellar fires.

§ Piercing nozzles designed to penetrate aircraft skin and building walls and floors.

§ Water curtain nozzle designed to spray water to protect against exposures to heat.

Playpipes and Shutoffs:

§ Shutoff at the nozzle places flow control with nozzleperson.

§ Shutoff is opened by pulling back on the lever.

Nozzle Operations:

§ Solid tips are screwed on and off.

§ Fog nozzles are either lever-type open/close shutoff or rotating type.

§ Fog pattern can be adjusted by rotating the nozzle barrel.

§ Nozzles with variable gallonage have an additional rotating ring on the collar.

§ Nozzle clicks when adjustments are made.

Operating Hoselines:

§ Most hoselines are operated from a crouching or kneeling position.

§ Small-diameter handlines.

§ Medium-diameter handlines.

§ Master stream devices.

Stream Application:

§ Fire stream application depends on fire attack method and conditions encountered.

§ Fire stream must have proper pressure and flow.

§ An understanding of hydraulics is needed to assure proper pressure and flow.

§ Direct fire attack aims the flow of water directly at the seat of the fire.

§ Indirect fire attack is used by converting water into steam in a closed room.

· Quantity of water applied is amount needed for total conversion of steam to fill a room.

· Indirect fire attack should not be used with people in the room.

§ Combination attack used a blend of direct and indirect fire attacks.

§ For a combination attack water is aimed at the ceiling and then rotated.

§ Ventilation with this attack controls the flow of fire gases and steam.

Basic Hydraulics, Friction Loss, and Pressure Losses in Hoselines:

§ Hydraulics is the study of fluids at rest and in motion.

§ Fire streams must have sufficient volume and pressure.

§ Pressure is required to lift, push, or move water.

§ Pressure is force divided over an area.

§ Force is a measurement of weight.

§ Water weighs 62.4 pounds per cubic foot, creating a force of 62.4 pounds.

§ Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi at sea level.

§ Gauge pressure measure pressure minus atmospheric pressure.

§ Vacuum (negative) pressure is the measurement of pressure less than atmospheric pressure.

§ Apparatus used for drafting use a compound gauge to measure vacuum pressure.

§ Head pressure measures pressure at the bottom of a column of water in feet.

§ Velocity pressure is the pressure in a hose as it leaves the nozzle.

§ Flow is at the rate and quantity of water delivered.

§ Required flow is the amount of water required to extinguish the fire.

§ Available flow is the amount of water that can be moved to extinguish the fire.

§ Discharge flow, is the amount of water flowing from the discharge side of the pump.

§ Water flow can be determined using a flow meter or pressure gauge.

§ When flow stops, the system is equalized at the highest pressure in the system.

§ A sudden stop of water can create a water hammer or pressure surge.

§ Discharge pressure of a pump:

§ EP = NP+ FL± E + SA

Adverse Conditions That Affect Fire Streams:

§ Major natural factor is wind and wind direction.

§ Gravity and air friction are also natural factors.

§ Factors can not be removed, but bringing stream closer to the target reduces effects.

Types of Foam and Foam Systems:

§ Foam is usually mixed in 3 - 9% concentrations with 3% being the most popular.

§ Foam is an aggregate of gas-filled bubbles formed from aqueous solutions of specially formulated concentrated liquid foaming agents.

§ Foam concentrate is mixed with water forming a solution to which air is added allowing foam to float over flammable liquids and extinguish them.

§ Class A foam solutions are detergent or soap-based surfactants.

§ Fluoro protein:

· Animal protein

§ AFFF:

· Aqueous film forming foam

§ FFFP:

· Film forming fluoro protein

§ Alcohol Type:

· Can be used on polar solvents and hydro carbons

§ High Expansion:

§ Class A:

· Developed for Wildland

§ Different foam types cannot be mixed in the same container.

§ Handline foam nozzles come in 60 - 250 GPM

Foam Tetrahedron:

§ Foam concentrate

§ Mechanical agitation

§ Water

§ Air

Foam Characteristics:

§ Foam’s ability to extinguish fires is based on several characteristics:

· Application rate.

· Heat resistance.

· Knockdown speed.

· Fuel resistance.

· Vapor suppression.

§ Protein foam is made from broken down natural protein materials.

§ Fluoroprotein foam has a fluorinated surfactant added.

§ Surfactant allows foam to be dipped into fuel.

§ AFFF is made from fluorochemical surfactants and synthetic agents.

§ AFFF can be applied with a regular fog nozzle.

§ Detergent-type foams use synthetic surfactants to create a foaming blanket.

§ High expansion foam is used to fill up entire areas.

Classification of Fuels:

§ Class A material can be extinguished using a detergent-based foam.

§ Class B fires include flammable liquids and large quantities of foam are best for these types of fires.

Application of Foam:

§ Foam is a mixture that requires a device to combine the foam concentrate with water.

§ Air must then be added.

§ An eductor is often used which works on the venturi principle.

§ Foam can also be delivered by a compressed air foam system.

§ Foam nozzles have the ability to aspirate proper quantities of air into the solution and apply the foam to the fuel.

§ Foam nozzles are designed for low and medium expansion foams.

§ Fog nozzles can be used to apply AFFF.

§ Clip-on foam nozzle adapters attach to fog nozzles.

§ Three techniques to apply foam:

· Bank-in.

· Bank-back.

· Raindown or snowflake.

WRAP-UP:

§ Fire streams leave a nozzle and head towards a target.

§ Two main types of nozzles are solid stream and fog nozzles.

§ It is important to understand basic hydraulics.

§ Foam application requires special equipment and unique application techniques.

· To calculate the discharge pressure of a pump, the following formula is used:

EP = NP + FL E + SA

§ EP = engine pressure

§ NP = nozzle pressure

§ FL = friction loss

§ E = elevation

§ SA = special appliance. Appliance friction loss is the friction loss created by movement of water through the valves and turns of the appliances.

· Friction loss can be calculated using the following formula:

FL = Q²* C * L

§ FL = friction loss

§ Q² = quantity of water (GPM)

§ C = hose diameter friction loss coefficient

§ L = length of hose

Friction Loss Coefficients:

Hose Diameter	Coefficient Value
1”	150
1.25”	80
1.5”	24
1.75”	15.5
2”	8
2.5”	2
3” (with 2.5” coupling)	.8
3” (with 3” coupling)	.67
4”	.2
4.5”	.1
5”	.08
6”	.05

NOZZLE TYPES and PRESSURE
Smooth bore handline	50
Fog handline, normal	100
Fog handline, mid pressure	75
Fog handline, low pressure	50
Smooth bore master stream	80
Fog master stream	100

· General Knowledge:

1 square inch of water 1’ tall has a head pressure of .433 psi.
1 square inch of water 2.31’ tall has a head pressure of 1 psi.
1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 lbs.
Water boils at 212^o F and 100^o C
Water freezes at 32^o F and 0^o C
1 gallon of water will absorb 9346 BTU if ALL water is converted to steam
Velocity is the speed at which fluid travels through hose or pipe.

Chapter 12 “Protective Systems”

· Protective systems help protect lives and property.

· Suppression systems are devices that help control fires.

· Suppression systems are also called auxiliary appliances.

· Some systems require manual activation, while others can detect a fire automatically.

· Sprinklers and standpipes are two main suppression systems.

· Most systems use water, however, chemicals and other agents can be used.

Detection Systems:

§ Detection systems discover the fire and notify people.

§ Some detection devices are part of a fire suppression system.

§ Detection systems should also be connected to a fire alarm system.

o People or Manual Systems:

§ People can alert building occupants and call the fire department.

§ Some building are equipped with a manual fire alarm system.

§ Manual systems have two common problems:

· Person must be present, awake, and alert.

· Local only.

Heat Detectors:

§ Operate by detecting the heat of a fire at a fixed temperature.

§ Heat can also be detected as the rising temperature builds at a rapid rate.

§ They are slow to detect fire.

§ They can be the spot-type or line-type.

§ Several variations of heat detectors are available:

· Fixed temperature detectors:

o Detect heat by one or more of three primary principals of physics:

§ Expansion of heated materials

§ Melting of heated materials

§ Changes in resistance of heated materials

o Continuous line detector: detect heat over a linear area parallel to the detector.

§ One device consists of a cable with a conductive metal inner core sheathed with stainless steel tubing. The inner core and sheath are separated by an electrically insulated semiconductor material that keeps them from touching but allows a small current to flow between the two. This insulation loses some of the electrical resistance at a predetermined temperature anywhere along the line. When this happens, the current flow increases initiating an alarm. This type of detection device restores itself when the heat is reduced. Another type uses two insulated wires within an outer covering. When the rated temperature is reached, the insulation melts allowing the two wires to touch. This action completes the circuit and initiates an alarm. To restore this type of line detector, the fused portion of the wires must be cut out and replaced with new wire.

o Bimetallic detector: one type uses two metals that have different thermal expansion characteristics. Thin strips of the metals are bonded together and one or both ends of the strip are attached to the alarm circuit. When heated, one metal expands faster than the other causing the strips to arch or bend. The deflection of the strip either makes or breaks contact in the alarm circuit initiating an alarm signal. Another type utilizes a snap disk and micro switch. Most bimetallic detectors will reset automatically when cooled. After a fire however, they do need to be checked to insure they were not damaged.

· Rate of rise detectors: operate on the principal that the temperature in a room will increase faster from a fire than from atmospheric temperature. Typically designed to initiate an alarm when the rise in temperature exceeds 12 to 15^o F per minute. Because the alarm is initiated by a sudden increase in temperature, the alarm can be initiated at a temperature far below that of a fixed temperature device. Most rate of rise heat detectors are reliable and not subject to false activations. All rate of rise heat detectors reset automatically if undamaged.

o Types of rate of rise heat detectors:

§ Pneumatic rate of rise spot detector:

· Most common type of rate of rise detector in use. This type of detector is most often combined in one unit that also has fixed temperature capability.

§ Pneumatic rate of rise line detector:

· Can cover large areas and consists of tubing arranged over a wide area of coverage. The tubing must be limited to about 1000 ft in length and arranged in rows not more than 30 ft apart and no more than 15 ft from walls.

§ Rate compensated detector:

· Designed for use in areas that are normally subject to regular temperature changes that are slower than those under fire conditions. The detector consists of an outer metallic sleeve that encases two bowed struts that have a slower expansion rate than the sleeve. The struts have electrical contacts on them and in normal conditions these do not come together. When the detector is heated rapidly, the outer sleeve expands in length and allows the struts and electrical contacts to come together, thus initiating an alarm. If the rate of rise in temperature is too slow such as 5^o F, the sleeve expands slowly enough to maintain tension on the inner strips. This tension prevents unnecessary alarm activations. However, regardless of the rate of temperature increase, when the surrounding air reaches a predetermined point, an alarm signal will be initiated.

§ Thermoelectric detector:

· Works on the principal that when two wires of dissimilar metals are twisted together and heated at one end, an electrical current is generated at the other end. The rate at which the wires are heated is determines the amount of current that is generated. These detectors are designed to “bleed off” or dissipate small amounts of current. This reduces the chance of a small temperature change activating an alarm unnecessarily. Rapid changes in temperature result in larger amounts of current flowing and activation of the alarm system.

o Smoke Detectors:

§ Smoke and toxic gases are the leading killers of people in the home.

§ Smoke detectors permanently wired, battery operated, or a combination of the two.

§ Ionization detectors use a radioactive element.

§ Ionization detectors are spot-type devices.

§ Photoelectric detectors use two different methods to detect smoke or fire:

· Beam application.

· Refractory photocell.

o Gas Detectors:

§ Gas-sensing detector detects the presence of certain gases prior to the gases reaching dangerous levels.

§ Can be permanently mounted or portable.

§ Detectors to check flammable gases, CO, and O2 are commonly carried on apparatus.

§ Only water vapor, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are released from all fires. It is therefore only practical to monitor the levels of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

o Flame Detectors:

§ Three types:

· Ultraviolet (UV):

o Virtually insensitive to sunlight so they can be used in areas not suitable for IR detectors. However, they are not suitable in areas where arc welding is done or where intense mercury-vapor lamps are used.

· Infrared (IR):

o Because some single band IR detectors are sensitive to sunlight, they are usually installed in fully enclosed areas. To reduce the likelihood of false alarms, most IR detectors are designed to require the flickering motion of a flame to initiate an alarm.

· Ultraviolet-infrared (UV-IR).

§ These rapid detectors are designed to protect petroleum and chemical facilities.

§ UV detectors detect the light waves emitted in the UV spectrum.

§ Infrared flame detectors detect the infrared radiation of a fire using a photo cell.

§ Combined detectors are used to rapidly detect the flame of a fire with fewer false alarms.

o   Sprinkler Systems:

§ Designed to automatically distribute water through sprinklers.

§ Most sprinklers detect heat and begin to apply water directly over the heat source.

§ NFPA publishes standards for installation, inspection, and maintenance of sprinkler systems.

o Sprinklers and Life Safety:

§ Sprinkler systems originally designed to protect property.

§ Residential sprinklers designed for life safety.

§ Residential sprinklers combined with effective smoke detection systems allows maximum life safety in homes.

o Sprinkler Head Design and Operation:

§ Sprinkler heads are the key component of the system.

§ Heat sensitive parts usually detect heat and apply water to the fire.

§ Sprinkler heads come in many designs.

§ Standard sprinklers are marked with SSU pr SSP on the deflector.

o Sprinkler Head Design and Operation:

§ Operation of a sprinkler head begins with the fusible element reaching is fusing point.

§ There are three types of fusing elements:

· Fusible link.

· Bulb filled.

· Chemical pellet .

Types of Sprinkler Systems:

§ Dry-pipe: used where temperatures drop below 40^o F. Air under pressure replaces water in piping above the dry-pipe valve. Air pressure gauge normally reads substantially lower than water pressure. If the gauges read the same, the system has been tripped and water has entered the pipes. Quick opening device required on systems with a water capacity over 500 GPM.

§ Wet-pipe: used where temperatures will not drop below 40^o F. Simplest type of automatic sprinkler system, requires little maintenance and contains water under pressure at all times.

§ Preaction system: dry system used when it is important to prevent water damage even from broken pipes. Uses deluge-type valve, fire detection devices and closed sprinklers. System will not discharge water into sprinkler piping except in response to smoke or heat detection system actuation. When smoke or heat is detected, a release is operated in the system actuation unit. This release opens the deluge valve and permits water to enter the distribution system so that water is ready when the sprinklers fuse.

§ Deluge: wets down area where fire originates by discharging water from all open heads in the system. This system is normally used to protect extra-hazardous occupancies. Activation may be controlled by flame and heat or smoke detectors plus a manual device. because the system is designed to operate automatically and the sprinklers do not have heat-responsive elements, it is necessary to provide a separate detection system.

§ Residential: installed in one and two family dwellings. System designed to prevent total fire involvement in room of origin and give occupants the opportunity to escape. System must have a pressure gauge (to check air pressure on dry-pipe system or water pressure on wet-pipe system), a flow detector, and a means for draining and testing the system. Some systems may be equipped with a FDC usually 1 ½”.

· Smaller and more affordable versions of wet or dry pipe sprinkler systems.

· Designed to control level of fire involvement so residents can escape.

· Residential systems use a check valve, water flow alarms, and drains.

· Some systems use antifreeze to protect all or part of the system from freezing.

o Sprinkler System Connections and Piping:

§ The connections and piping for a sprinkler system provides water to the heads.

§ On some systems a fire pump may be included.

§ A secondary water source is a fire department siamese connection.

§ Fire department connection can supply system even if main control valve is closed.

§ Most systems also have a backflow preventer.

§ System may have other control and check valves.

§ Main control valve is below riser that feeds the cross mains and branch lines.

§ Tamper alarms alert the alarm company whenever someone operates the valve.

§ Firefighters should be able to connect a supply line to a sprinkler or or standpipe.

§ When connecting to a siamese, use the outlet on the far left first.

o Control Devices for Sprinkler Systems:

§ There are three main control devices for sprinkler and standpipe systems:

· Outer screw & yoke (OS&Y).

· Post indicator valve (PIV).

· Wall indicator valve (WAV).

o Returning Sprinkler Systems to Service:

§ Most department do not service sprinkler systems.

§ Fire departments stop the flowing head or shut the system down.

§ Firefighters must know how to shut down either individual heads or the entire system.

§ Fire step is to shut down any pumper supplying the system.

§ The main sprinkler or a sectional valve should be shut down and drained.

§ Valves must be reset and opened once sprinkler heads are replaced.

§ Sprinkler tongs or wooden wedges can be used to stop a sprinkler.

§ Water flow may also be stopped by shutting down the main sprinkler valve or a floor or sectional valve.

§ Once a system is shut down and drained, heads may be replaced.

§ System should be refilled slowly.

§ If system can not be restored a fire watch will be needed.

o Standpipe Classifications:

§ Standpipe systems in large buildings prepipe water lines for fire streams.

§ Some systems allow both occupants and firefighters to use them.

§ Tunnel systems and shopping malls have horizontal standpipe systems.

§ Standpipe systems are classified by type of user and requirements for volume and size.

§ Class I systems are designed for trained personnel.

§ Class II systems are designed for use by untrained building occupants.

§ Class II systems may be used by a trained or untrained person.

§ Class III systems are used by trained or untrained personnel but meet Class I requirements for flow.

§ An automatic wet pipe system has a water supply.

§ Automatic dry and semiautomatic dry pipe use dry pipe until a hose station is opened.

§ Semiautomatic systems require an activation valve to be opened manually.

§ Manual dry pipe relies on the fire department connection for water supply.

o Standpipe System Connections and Piping:

§ Standpipe systems range from very simple to complex systems.

§ Standpipe systems include piping, outlets with hose, valves, fire department connections, and monitoring devices.

§ Piping includes the riser or risers and any attachments needed.

§ Outlets may be in building stairwell or wall mounted cabinet.

§ Pressure regulating device should be attached to the outlet.

§ Standpipe valves are similar to sprinkler systems.

§ Fire department connection is an inlet or siamese device.

o Alarms for Standpipes and Sprinklers:

§ Alarms and monitoring systems are found in most sprinkler and standpipe systems.

§ Sprinkler systems are both detection and suppression devices.

§ Occupant used standpipe systems should be monitored.

§ Gate valve may activate standpipe system.

§ Water flow alarms are also electrical or mechanical.

§ Alarm company notifies fire department.

§ Alarm company responds to tamper alarms.

o Fire Department Sprinkler and Standpipe Operations:

§ Protective systems should be part of strategic plan for fire protection.

§ Fire department must survey hazards and resources.

§ Owner does maintenance.

§ Fire prevention bureau does inspections.

§ Fire companies do preplanning.

§ Fire department should know of the type of system, connection locations, two supply points, and key valve locations.

§ Standpipe operations begin with establishing a water supply.

§ Standpipe system should be charged right away.

§ First unit should go to annunciator panel.

§ Sprinkler operations begin with information on the building and its system.

§ First step is to establish water supply.

§ System should be charged immediately.

§ Hoselines should be advanced into fire area for extinguishment and overhaul.

o Other Protective Systems:

§ Many other protective systems are in use today.

§ Need to be familiar with most common types.

§ If responding to more complex system, personnel should be familiar with them.

o Local Application and Hood Systems:

§ System is designed for a certain location.

§ Most systems use dry or wet chemical agents.

§ Used for Class K fires.

o Total Flooding Systems:

§ Used to protect entire area room or building.

§ Use CO₂ or other inert gases, halogenated or clean agents, dry chemicals or foam.

o WRAP-UP:

§ Protective systems are designed to detect and or suppress a fire.

§ Value and operation of these systems must be understood.

§ Sprinkler systems are used for detection and suppression.

§ There are four main types of systems.

§ Standpipes supply water to large buildings.

§ Building occupants can also use standpipe systems as well as firefighters.

§ Standpipe operations require careful coordination.

§ Other systems detect fire and applies extinguishing agent.

§ Kitchens usually have hood systems, other systems are used to protect valuables.

· General Knowledge:

· Dry pipe system has an air pressure of 15-50 PSI

· Automatic sprinklers are the most

· 70% of all fires are controlled by the activation of five or fewer heads

· All sprinkler parts and components should be listed by UL or FM (factory mutual)

· Quick response sprinkler developed for life safety purposes

· Post indicator valve (PIV) usually have butterfly type valves or gate valves

· Water supply must me able to supply water to the highest sprinkler in the building with a residual pressure of 15 PSI

· Pump operator should maintain pressure of 150 PSI or greater if possible

· If using an outside gravity-fed water tank, bottom of tank should be at least 35 ft above the highest sprinkler in the building.

Sprinkler Head Temperature Ratings, Classifications and Color Coding

Temperature Rating ^oF ^oC	Temperature Classification	Color Coding	Glass Bulb Colors
135-170 57-77	Ordinary	Uncolored or black	Orange or red
175-225 79-107	Intermediate	White	Yellow or green
250-300 121-149	High	Blue	Blue
325-375 163-191	Very high	Red	Purple
400-475 204-246	Very extra high	Green	Black
500-575 260-302	Ultra high	Orange	Black
625 343	Ultra high	Orange	Black

Chapter 14 “Ladders”

· Ladder Terminology:

o Beam: the side of the ladder, it runs the full length of the ladder from top to bottom.

o Bed Section: the part of the ladder that is the foundation. It is the section from which all other sections are raised. It is also called the Bed Ladder.

o Heel (also called foot, base, or butt): the bottom most part of a ladder. It is usually a reinforced section with points, spurs, or rubber pads to reduce slipping on various surfaces.

o Spurs, spikes, cleats, shoes, and butt plates: the pointed shoes that are attached to the base of a ladder to dig into the surface and prevent slipping.

o Dogs, pawls, rung locks or ladder locks: the mechanisms in a an extension ladder that ride up along with a fly section and engage a rung of the section from which they extend to prevent retraction through the use of a spring-loaded lock.

o Fly Section: the section(s) of an extension ladder that is (are) raised. Also called the fly ladder.

o Pads: nonslip pieces of rubber or plastic that attach to the bottom of a ladder, usually in a swivel-type foot designed to lay flat against the ground or floor to prevent the slippage on smooth surfaces.

o Guides/channels: channels of the bed ladder that permit the fly sections to ride up and maintain stability.

o Halyard: the cable or rope made of nylon, hemp, or steel that is used to raise or lower the fly section out of or into the bed section through the use of pulleys.

o Sensor Label: heat sensitive label affixed to the ladder to alert firefighters that heat damage may have occurred and testing should be done.

o Hooks: retractable hooks that permit certain types of ladders to be placed on a slanted roof surface and used for footing stability.

o Rung locks: see Dogs

o Pawls: see Dogs

o Protection plates: reinforced metal that is built up at chafing points to avoid weakening created by rubbing and friction wear.

o Pulley: wheel through which the halyard passes. Used for raising and lowering the fly sections of an extension ladder.

o Rails: running lengthwise, the upper and lower surface of the beams.

o Rungs: the “steps” of the ladder.

o Stops: limiters built into the bed sections to prevent the extension fly sections from being over-extended.

o Tie rods: found on wooden ladders, these metal rods secure the beams and prevent them from spreading apart and the rungs falling out.

o Tip: the top of the ladder.

· Ladders are used for many purposes besides providing access to elevated locations.

· Ladders were originally constructed from wood, now truss type beams are used.

· Truss construction allows for stronger and lighter ladders.

· Continuous advances allow for ladders of various sizes and uses to be developed.

· Ladder Companies:

o Apparatus carrying ladders and other devices, tools, and personnel.

o Tower ladders and articulating boom ladders.

o Ladder company tasks include:

o Forcible entry.

o Search and rescue.

o Roof access.

o Ventilation.

· Types of Truck-Mounted Ladders:

o ; Aerial ladder: an aerial ladder is an apparatus-mounted ladder capable of reaching heights of generally up to 100 feet with some that go beyond 110 feet. Because of the heavy-duty use and reach, most of these ladders are very heavy and are constructed of some combination of steel, aluminum, and other metal alloys designed for strength using a truss style construction.

o Tower ladder: the tower ladder has a telescopic boom with a mounted basket capable of holding from 750 to more than 1000 pounds. It has an advantage over the aerial ladder in that it can hold many people at the same time and is capable of many uses including use as a work platform, an observation vantage point, and an elevated water stream appliance. The tower ladder can remove many trapped victims at the same time with a limited number of resources.

o Articulating boom ladder: through the use of several articulating booms, a snorkel ladder uses balance, and individual extension and retraction capability to place the bucket into places that are not reachable by tower ladders due to obstructions. The basket can be lowered behind an obstruction where a tower ladder or an aerial ladder cannot reach or be placed. The disadvantage is that it requires observation of many points of contact. Each articulation joint is capable of striking an object, building, electrical wires or other objects.

· Types of Ground or Portable Ladders:

o Straight ladder:

§ A fixed length ladder.

§ Range from 12’ to 20’.

§ Can usually be carried and raised by one person.

§ Used for access, ventilation and escapes.

o Extension ladder:

§ Two or more ladders operating as a unit.

§ May have 2 or more fly ladders.

§ Halyard used for extending ladders.

§ Ladders over 40 feet have stay poles.

o Roof or Hook ladder:

§ Straight ladder with retractable hooks at tip.

§ Used when operating on a sloped roof.

§ Hooks are placed over the ridge of roof.

o Folding (Attic) ladder:

§ Enables access into narrow and confined spaces.

§ Length of 8’ to 16’.

§ Collapsible feature.

§ Ideal ladder to reach sprinkler shutoff.

o A-Frame Combination ladder:

§ Can be used in various configurations.

§ Fly ladder can be manually raised.

§ Can be used as step ladder.

§ Works well in tight places.

o Pompier ladder:

§ No longer an approved ladder.

§ Was used as hanging ladder to climb up.

§ Ladder raised manually to window levels.

· Use and Care of Portable or Ground Ladders:

o Fire service ladders warrant special attention.

o NFPA 1931.

o Ladder needing repair must be taken out of service.

o Detailed maintenance records should be kept of required inspections.

o Store in clean, dry places.

o Store with multiple support points to prevent bowing or sagging.

o Avoid moisture and keep as dry as possible.

o Do not place in a location where they are subjected to heat or exhaust.

o Do not lean on movable objects such as apparatus.

o Do not place in out-of-sight areas where they can become tripping hazards.

o When left unattended, secure at tip to prevent from toppling.

o Paint will tend to hide defects, paint only 14 inches of the tips or heels for identification.

· Maintenance, Cleaning and Inspection:

o Rungs: tightness, cracks, dents, slivers

o Bolts, Rivets, Welds: looseness

o Beams, Trusses, Truss Blocks: unusual wear, compression failure

o Wood Ladders: dry rot, cracks, slivers

o Metal Ladders: heat damage, bent beams or rungs

o Fiberglass Ladders: cracks, chips

o Movable Parts: ease of operation, fly ladders slide freely in channels.

o Halyard: undue wear, knotted or kinked. No excessive play.

o Pulley: not out of round and operates freely

o Discoloration: heat damage

o No wavy or deformed areas

· Ladder Safety:

o Use common sense.

o Overloading ladder limits is the most common cause of ladder-related injuries.

o Ladder placement is a critical element.

o Ladders should not be in front of lower floor window or door.

o Use of correct ladder is important.

o Must be careful of overhead wires.

o Always keep three limbs in touch with the ladder.

o Always have someone butt the ladder.

o Always use a safety belt or leg lock when working off a ladder.

· Ladder Uses:

o Used primarily for climbing.

o Can provide a path to heights.

o Can be used to descend or as a bridge.

o Commonly used for rescue.

o A roof ladder provides stability while working on sloped roof.

o Can be used to remove glass

o Can be used to support weight.

o Water can be applied from a ground ladder.

o May reach areas where apparatus mounted appliances may not reach.

o Can serve as an exterior work platform.

· Ladder Selection Considerations:

o Ground conditions

o Height needed

o Purpose

o Slope of ground

o Accessibility of location

o Available personnel

o Overhead considerations

o Raising space considerations

o Stability

· Raising Skills: Concepts:

o Heel of ladder must be a certain distance from the building for stability.

o Safest climbing angle is about 75 degrees.

o Prior to climbing, determine proper distance for ladder from building.

· Raising Ladders:

o Two-person raise

o One-person raise

o Beam raise

o Rung raise

· Special Uses:

o Removal of numerous victims.

o Chute with a tarp.

o Over a fence.

o Elevated hose stream.

o Portable pool.

o Barrier.

o Supporting of falling sign.

o Forcible entry.

o Hoist point.

o Ventilation fan supports.

· WRAP-UP:

o Ladders have many applications.

o Different types of ladders designed for specific uses.

o New designs are always being developed.

o Must use common sense.

o Maintenance duties, inspection, and documenting results are important.

Chapter 15 “Ropes and Knots”

· Rope is one of the most important and routinely used tools in the fire service.

· Firefighters need to know about what ropes are used, knot tying, rope inspection, and storage of ropes.

Rope Materials and Their Characteristics:

§ Rope characteristics will determine specific applications.

§ NFPA 1983 standard for ropes used in the fire service.

§ Natural materials:

· Manila.

· Sisal.

· Cotton.

§ Synthetic materials:

· Nylon.

· Polypropylene.

· Polyethylene.

· Polyester.

o Construction Methods and Their Characteristics:

§ Rope categories:

· Dynamic.

· Static.

§ Rope construction:

· Laid (twisted).

· Braided.

· Braid-on-braid.

· Kernmantle.

o Primary Uses:

§ Utility.

§ Firefighting and rescue.

o Life Safety Rope:

§ Ropes, harnesses, and hardware must comply with NFPA 1983.

§ NFPA 1983 categorizes ropes and sets strength requirements.

o Knots:

§ Half hitch.

§ Overhand (safety).

§ Clove hitch in the open.

§ Clove hitch around an object.

§ Becket bend.

§ Double becket bend.

§ Bowline.

§ Figure eight.

§ Follow-through figure eight.

§ Figure eight on a bight.

§ Rescue.

§ Water.

o Inspection:

§ Ropes must be inspected and properly maintained.

§ All life safety rope inspections should be logged.

§ Ropes must be individually identified.

§ Damaged rope should be removed immediately.

§ Training ropes should be inspected after every use.

o Maintenance:

§ Ropes must be properly maintained.

§ Follow manufacturer’s recommendations.

§ Natural fibers limited to brushing off.

§ Synthetic materials can be washed.

§ Ropes must be dried prior to use.

§ Ropes can be stored in coils or rope bags.

o Rigging for Hoisting:

§ One of the primary uses of rope is for hoisting.

§ Clove hitch, figure eight, and bowline are most often used for hoisting.

§ Tag line may also be used.

o WRAP-UP:

§ This is only basic rope information.

§ Knot tying and rope use should be practiced regularly.

§ Proper maintenance and inspection is essential.

Chapter 17 “Forcible Entry”

· Delay in entry reduces ability to amount an aggressive fire attack.

· TRY BEFORE YOU PRY.

· Rescue operations require forcible entry to access victims.

· Forcible entry is a combination of knowledge and skills.

· Knowledge of building construction, lock assemblies, tools and entry techniques is needed.

· Repeated practice and experience will develop skills.

o Forcible Entry Tools:

§ Striking Tools:

§ Force = weight * speed

§ Swing no more than shoulder height

· Flathead ax - most common striking tool (generally used to strike the halligan. Ax married with halligan is called “irons”).

· Pick-head ax

· Sledge hammer - ten pound is most common and most versatile.

· Maul - sledge hammer on one end and blade on the other. (used to split NOT CUT wood)

· Battering ram

· Denver tool

· ball-peen hammer

· Halligan tool (three parts are adzn, pike end and fork end)

§ Prying and Spreading Tools:

· Halligan tool (three parts are adzn, pike end and fork end)

· Claw tool

· Kelly tool

· Hydraulic spreaders

· Misc. prying tools

§ Cutting Tools:

· Ax

· Pick-head ax

· Handsaws (most common is metal cutting hacksaw)

· Power saws

· Bolt cutters (most common for cutting locks is 36” in length)

· Wire cutters

· Power cutting tools-saws

· Carbide-tipped blades

· Metal cutting blades

· Masonry cutting blades

· Chain saws

· Reciprocating saws

· Cutting torch

§ Pulling tools:

· Pike pole/hook

§ Special Tools:

· Dent puller/bam bam

· Duck bill lock breaker

· K tool and lock pullers

· Combination of tools (striking with prying etc)

o Safety with Forcible entry Tools:

§ Always wear proper PPE.

§ Follow manufacturer’s guidelines.

§ Cut material with proper blades.

§ Operate with regard for the safety of others.

§ Make sure tools are working properly.

§ Never attempt to use tools alone that require two firefighters.

§ When task is complete, secure tools to prevent tripping or other hazards.

§ Tools should be stored and easily accessible.

· Rotary and Chain Saws:

o Always follow manufacturer’s instructions.

o Conduct daily check for operation and blade condition.

o Check the saw for fuel and proper operation before proceeding to entry location.

o Equip the saw with a carry strap.

o Never carry a running saw up a ladder or through a crowd of firefighters.

o Power saws require two operators, the saw operator and a guide firefighter.

· Carrying Tools:

o Axes: carry the ax with the blade away from the body and the pick head covered. Never carry an ax over the shoulder.

o Prying tools: similar to the ax, pointed and sharp edges should be carried away from the body and covered if possible.

o Hooks or pike poles: the tool head, the hook end should be carried down and close to the ground. Depending on handle length, beware of overhead electrical wires and other obstructions. Inside a building, carry the handle close to the body with the hooked end toward the ceiling.

o Striking tools: these tools tend to be heavy and the head should be carried close to the ground. When using these tools do not use a free-swing motion. Firmly grasp the tool with two hands and use a controlled and accurate stroke to move the tool.

o Maintenance of forcible Entry Tools:

§ Proper tool maintenance is the first step to tool safety.

§ Tools must be inspected and cleaned on a regular basis.

§ It is important to check for wear and damaged parts.

§ Tools should be removed from service or repaired when defects are found.

§ Avoid using any metal protectant that contains 1-1-1-trichloroethane as this may cause the material of the handle to decompose.

§ Do not paint axe heads!

§ Coat wood handles with boiled linseed oil

o Construction and Forcible Entry:

§ The type and construction of building features must be understood to force entry.

§ Door construction.

§ Locks.

§ Additional security devices.

o Types of Doors:

Wood

Metal

Glass

Tempered glass

Sliding

Revolving

Overhead

Residential garage

Commercial garage

Roll-down steel

o Methods of Forcible Entry:

§ Three standard methods:

· Conventional:

o Leverage.

o Force.

o Impact.

· Through-the-lock.

· Power tools.

o Through-the-Lock Forcible Entry:

§ Two common methods:

· Unscrewing or wrenching the locking cylinder.

· Using the K tool.

o Operating Lock Mechanisms:

§ Final step for entry is to manipulate the lock using the proper key tool.

§ Correct key tool to use is determined by examining cylinder.

§ To open a mortise lock, visualize the keyhole prior to pulling it out.

§ A rim lock with night latch can only be unlocked from the inside.

o Windows:

§ Different types of glass:

· Regular/plate.

· Tempered.

· Laminated.

· Wire .

· Polycarbonate glazing.

o Types of Windows:

Double hung

Energy efficient

Casement

Awning

Jalousie

Projected

Fixed

Bars and gates

o Breaching Walls and Floors:

§ Emergency situations may dictate that walls of a structure be opened.

§ Two main considerations:

· Type of building construction.

· Tools available.

o Techniques for Breaching Walls:

§ Breaching wood-framed walls:

· Size up the wall.

· Remove the wall covering.

· Bend or break pipes.

· Push wall covering over on the other side.

§ Breaching masonry walls:

· Remove single unit of block or brick.

· Use largest striking tool to break unit.

· Continue to knock out surrounding units.

o Techniques for Breaching Floors:

§ Cutting wood floors with a power saw.

§ Cutting wood floor with an ax.

§ Consider the following:

· Take precautions to avoid cutting wires and pipes.

· Maintain structural stability of building.

· Beware of sparks from tools.

· Always use proper PPE.

o WRAP-UP:

§ Forcible entry is a key tactic in structural firefighting and emergency operations.

§ Firefighters must understand tools, equipment, and methods of force entry.

§ Ineffective forcible entry results in search and rescue delay and fire spread.

§ Important to be familiar with types of locking mechanisms and building construction components.

Chapter 18 “Ventilation”

· Ventilation is the planned and systemic removal of pressure, heat, gases, and smoke.

· Ventilation is a very complex subject area with many factors.

o Principal Advantages and Effects of Ventilation:

§ Ventilation is the relief of the products of combustion from an enclosed area.

§ This is a very essential part of the fire suppression effort

§ The need to relieve the structure of these products of combustion is a very essential part of the fire suppression effort.

§ By relieving the structure of heat through channeling it into the atmosphere, the fire is deprived of the ability to heat up other parts of the structure.

§ Using ventilation, the heat is exhausted and dissipated into the atmosphere where its ability to spread fire through the structure is reduced.

§ Ventilation channels smoke out of the structure.

§ As smoke builds up, vision is obscured.

§ Heavy smoke conditions can obscure light completely.

§ Unburned hydrocarbons irritate eyes.

§ Smokes contain many deadly substances.

§ Removal of smoke will add survival time to a victim, increasing the chance of successful rescue.

o Heat, Smoke and Toxic Gases:

§ When fire burns, air heats, expands, becomes lighter and rises.

§ Heated air spreads by convection and radiation.

§ Fire gases contain many deadly products of combustion.

§ Newer approach to construction makes ventilation even more important.

o Considerations For Proper Ventilation:

§ Important to understand behavior of fire gases.

§ Smoke rises and mushrooms.

§ Vertical ventilation is the removal of gases and smoke through vertical channels.

§ Horizontal ventilation is channel smoke through horizontal openings.

§ Without ventilation, heat, smoke and steam have nowhere to go.

§ An opening is needed for smoke and its by-products to exit as attack team moves in.

§ Horizontal ventilation requires forethought.

§ Wrong time or place can increase fire.

§ Ventilation can be as critical as applying water.

§ Many factors must be considered when venting.

§ A size up of the structure is very important.

§ Height of building will also have an impact.

§ Wind can alter ventilation.

§ Bad weather affects smoke’s ability to travel.

§ Through proper ventilation the fire’s ability to extend can be removed.

o Fire and Its By-Products:

§ During combustion, energy is released.

§ Molecules reunite to form new substances.

§ These substances can be caustic to humans.

§ Ventilation will remove some substances.

§ Ventilation has many other benefits.

§ Flashover, backdraft, and rollover can occur without ventilation.

o Flashover:

§ Light, smoke and heat are liberated as part of the combustion process.

§ Everything in a confined area ignites at almost the same time.

§ It is important to know the mechanics of a flashover to understand its development.

o Backdraft (Smoke Explosion):

§ A rapid ignition of smoke.

§ Incomplete combustion occurs as oxygen levels decrease.

§ As fire consumes greater amounts of oxygen, the production of CO increases.

§ With the heat, pressure builds in the confined space.

§ When an opening occurs, a billow of smoke escapes.

§ Cooler air causes air to contract.

§ Mixture increase CO concentration.

§ Once CO concentration reaches the flame, components are primed for ignition.

· Signs of Potential Backdraft:

o Smoke-stained windows.

o Puffing of smoke at seams and cracks.

o Smoke pushing out under pressure.

o No visible flames.

o Heavy black smoke.

o Tightly sealed building.

o Large, open area or void.

o Extreme heat.

o Rollover:

§ Heated products of combustion rise to higher levels.

§ Heated gases reach their ignition and begin to spread across the room along the ceiling.

§ When the upper thermal layer is disrupted, the heat is forced down.

o What Needs to be Vented:

§ Without ventilation, expanding heated steam and smoke will roll over.

§ Small voids and compartments need to exhaust increasing pressure.

§ Areas such as cocklofts need to be checked.

§ Horizontal and vertical voids.

o Air Movement:

§ Heat transmission occurs through:

· Convection

· Conduction

· Radiation

o Types of Ventilation:

§ Ventilation can occur using several methods:

· Natural.

o Windows/Doors

o Wind/Natural air flow

· Mechanical:

o HVAC.

o Smoke fans.

o Positive pressure.

o Hydraulic.

o Mechanics of Ventilation:

§ Ventilation is simply the movement of air from high pressure to lower pressure.

§ Knowing the natural tendency of air movement is important.

§ Improvement of air conditions is crucial.

§ Horizontal and vertical ventilation conform to the same rules.

o Ventilation Techniques:

§ Break glass.

§ Open doors.

§ Rope and a tool.

§ Hook or pike pole.

§ Iron or halligan.

§ Ax.

§ Portable ladder.

§ Aerial ladder tip.

§ Negative pressure.

§ Positive pressure.

o Roof Ventilation:

§ Vertical ventilation can be attained using several methods.

§ Opening a door or window will begin to exhaust pent-up smoke.

§ Several types of openings affect the progress of ventilation.

§ Roof ventilation has primary and secondary holes.

§ Primary hole is cut over the fire.

§ Secondary holes follow primary.

§ Several types of cuts can be used.

· Roof Ventilation Cuts:

o Expandable cut.

o Louver cut.

o Triangular cut.

o Trench cut.

o Examination holes.

o Safety Considerations:

§ Will ventilation permit the fire to extend?

§ Will the escape route be cut off?

§ Will ventilation endanger others?

§ Are firefighters working in teams?

§ Is there proper supervision?

o Obstacles to Ventilation:

§ Access.

§ Security devices.

§ Height.

§ Poor planning.

§ Unfamiliar building layout.

§ Ventilation timing.

§ Cut a roof/open a roof.

o Factors Affecting Ventilation:

§ Partial openings.

§ Partially broken windows.

§ Screens.

§ Roof materials

§ Dropped or hanging ceilings.

§ Building size.

§ Weather.

§ Opening windows.

o WRAP-UP:

§ Ventilation is an important tool in firefighting.

§ Proper use can make a big difference.

§ Improper ventilation can result in fire extension.

§ Conditions will also affect ventilation.

§ Training and experience will help with ventilation decisions.

Chapter 19 “Fire Suppression”

· Hydro carbons solutions (petroleum based) will either float or sink in water.

· Polar solvents are flammable liquids that will mix (are missible) with water

o Elements of Fire Control:

§ Must know the processes that create and sustain fire.

§ Early arrival and firefighter knowledge can lower the losses and risk taken.

o Fire Components and Considerations:

§ Structural fire.

§ Ground cover.

§ Vehicular fires.

§ Flammable liquids.

§ Flammable gases.

· Structural:

o Length of time burning.

o Building construction materials.

o Occupancy type.

o Available resources.

· Ground Cover:

o Triangle is based on weather, fuel, and topography.

o There are a great number of fuel types.

o Speed and intensity are two main variables.

· Vehicular:

o Any fuel leak can ignite quickly.

o These are Class B fires.

o Primary dangers are the materials used in construction.

o Airbag mounts in dash or on sides.

o Unknown contents in trunk.

o Underside or fuels storage areas.

· Flammable Liquids:

o Can be complicated by improper actions.

o Knowledge of spilled or burning material is important.

o Allows for margin of safety and ability to mitigate the hazard.

· Flammable Gas:

o Often grouped with flammable liquids.

o Important to understand hazards.

o Vapor density and gas toxicity will be important information.

o Process of Fire Extinguishment:

§ First create a plan of attack.

§ Apply plan of action quickly, efficiently, and as safely as possible.

§ Attack methods:

§ Direct.

§ Indirect.

§ Combination.

§ The goal with any method is to save property.

o Proper Stream Selection:

§ Sufficient water must be applied directly to control fire.

§ Fire stream placement very important.

§ Avoid opposing streams.

§ Timing and stream mobility are additional factors to consider.

Hose Stream Characteristics

Type Or Size Of Line	Reach (FT)	Mobility	GPM	Common Use
1” or greater booster or reel line	25-50	Excellent	10-40	Very small nonstructural fires or overhaul
1 ½” to 1 ¾”	25 -50	Good	40-175	Quick attack, one to three rooms
2 ½”	50-100	Fair to poor	125-350	One floor or more, personnel permitting
Master stream	100-200	Poor to none	350-2,000	Large, fully involved structures or exposure protection

o Tactical Objectives:

§ Rescue Rescue

§ Exposures Exposures

§ Containment Ventilation

§ Extinguishment Attack

§ Overhaul Salvage

o Tactical Considerations:

§ Residential occupancies.

§ Business and mercantile occupancies.

§ Multistory occupancies.

§ Below-ground structures or basements.

§ Structures equipped with sprinklers or standpipe.

§ Exposure fires.

§ Nonstructural fires.

FIREGROUND FACTORS

BUILDING
Size	Construction type	Condition
Age	Openings	Utilities
Concealed spaces	Access	Effect of fire
Extent of fire	Interior fuel load	Exterior fuel load
FIRE
Size	Location	Direction of travel
Time since ignition	Extent	Materials involved
Material left to burn	Fire load	Stage of involvement
OCCUPANCY
Type	Value	Fire load
Status (used/vacant)	Hazards of occupancy	Life hazard
Arrangement	Obstructions

o WRAP-UP:

§ Firefighting principles are based on scientific laws and experience.

§ Every combustible item and occupancy must be studied and understood.

§ Knowing the elements of fire control and applying them will bring better results.

Chapter 20 “Salvage, Overhaul and Fire Cause Determination”

· Overhaul - The practice of searching a fire scene to detect hidden fires or sparks that may re-kindle and to identify the possible point of origin & cause of the fire.

· Salvage and overhaul not viewed as critical tasks.

· New firefighters will not be involved in fire cause determination, but should understand key principles.

· This lesson explains the concepts and importance of salvage, overhaul and fire cause determination.

o Salvage Tools and Equipment:

§ All fires involve a potential loss of material goods.

§ Firefighters can have a tremendous impact with aggressive salvaging.

§ Little things will go a long way.

§ Basic premise is to remove harmful atmosphere and minimize damage.

o Maintenance of Tools and Equipment Used in Salvage:

§ After use tools and equipment must be inspected.

§ Salvage tools often exposed to hazardous materials.

§ Salvage covers should be brushed off, washed, dried, and inspected.

o Salvage Operations:

§ Goal is to eliminate possible damage.

§ Salvage team must be aware of surroundings.

§ Ceiling collapse is one of the biggest hazards.

§ Leaks, sprinkler heads, and unmonitored water flow can all lead to collapse.

§ If signs are evident, the problem needs to be addressed.

§ Need to be aware of other fireground operations.

o Stopping Water Flow from Sprinkler Heads:

§ Main step in salvage operations.

§ Sprinkler wedge is most common tool.

§ Full PPE must be used especially eye protection.

§ Other mechanical devices are available.

o Methods of Protecting Material Goods:

§ “Removing items from harm’s way” approach can be determined quickly.

§ Consider if items can be moved quicker than covered.

§ Items in the way of an attack crew should be moved.

o Salvage Operations in Sprinkled Buildings:

§ Emphasis on finding sprinkler shutoff valve.

§ PIV and OS&Y valves used to shut down system.

§ System is shut down after all firefighting is completed.

§ If valve is not found, wedges will have to be used.

o Overhaul Operations:

§ Overhaul begins after fire investigation concerns have been addressed.

§ Strip exposed coverings in fire area.

§ Check for extension.

§ Visually inspect wooden structures.

§ Remove insulation to expose areas.

§ Smallest embers can ignite after hours.

o Overhauling Roofs:

§ Very long and tedious process.

§ Crawl spaces create many challenges.

§ Weather can have an impact on roof overhaul.

§ Electronic sensors may be used to check for hot spots.

o Revisits of the Involved Structures:

§ It is important to revisit the scene of the incident.

§ Good customer service.

§ Check for smoldering and check need for occupant assistance.

o Debris Removal:

§ Debris is removed while searching for hidden fires.

§ Loose material must be removed.

§ After complete removal, cover debris.

o Fire Cause Determination Concerns:

§ Need to be aware of possible clues. (electrical, candles, accelerants, etc)

§ Be observant.

§ Do not remove anything until approved by investigator.

§ Any small markings or findings are valuable to the investigator.

§ Preservation of evidence.

§ Point of origin determination. (where fire was first noticed, heaviest damage, markings on walls,

§ ceilings or floors, “V-pattern”, depth of char, etc)

o Securing the Building:

§ Building must be secured when done.

§ Assist family in any way possible.

§ Some fire departments have arrangements for housing and post-fire needs.

§ Fire departments need to focus on customer service.

o Additional Information Or Clues:

§ During dispatch, note all information available. (weather, time of day, address, type of dispatch, etc.

§ Structure still occupied or evacuated.

§ Callers reporting explosions or different colored smoke.

§ Firefighters should observe how fire reacted.

§ Where fire was.

§ How contents are arranged.

§ Signs of a break in.

§ Citizens seen leaving in a hurry.

§ Evidence must be marked, tagged and photographed.

o WRAP-UP:

§ Salvage and overhaul play a major role in success of operation.

§ Great work many times goes unnoticed.

§ Skills should be maintained.

§ Important to focus on customer service.

Chapter 21 “Pre Incident Planning & Public Education”

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Chapter 22 “Emergency Medical Services”

Medical Abbreviations

· Five “S’s” sobriety, sleeping, seizure, sugar, suicide

Deformities

Contusions

Abrasions

Punctures/penetrations

Burns

Tenderness

Lacerations - Instability

Swelling - Crepitation

Signs/symptoms

Allergies

Medications

Pertinent medical history

Last oral intake

Events leading to event

Onset

Pain

Quality

Radiating

Severity

Time

Pupils

Equal

And

Reactive

Light

(Hypoglycemia)

Tachycardia

Irritability

Restless

Excessive hunger

Diaphoresis/Depression

Congestive

Obstructive

Pulmonary

Disease

Aware

Verbal

Pain

Unresponsive

(CPR)

Basic

Cardiac

Life

Support

Level

Consciousness

Mechanism

Injury

Pulse

Movement

Sensation

Cerebral

Spinal

Fluid

Congestive

Heart

Failure

Mass

Casualty

Incident

o Roles and Responsibilities of an Emergency Provider:

§ Firefighters often provide emergency care and first aid.

§ Basic knowledge of emergency medical care is important.

o Key Responsibilities:

§ Ensure own safety and that of others.

§ Act in a professional manner at all times.

§ Firefighters should never make a situation worse.

§ Practice and update skills.

§ Know and maintain EMS equipment.

§ Gather important information.

o Legal Considerations for Emergency Care Providers:

§ Standard of care.

§ Consent.

§ Minors consent.

§ Implied consent.

§ Abandonment.

o Interacting with Emergency Services Personnel:

§ Firefighters interact with EMS personnel while on the scene of an emergency.

§ Firefighters may be interacting with medi-vac units.

§ Important to understand the different levels of care.

§ Ambulance care can be ALS or BLS.

§ EMS will rely on firefighters for critical information.

§ Consider gathering information at the scene.

§ Document responses.

§ Documentation is crucial to protect the department.

o Understanding Safety and Infection Control:

§ Safety and infection control is a primary consideration.

§ Getting sick or injured does not help at the scene.

o Analyzing the Safety of the Emergency Scene:

§ Check scene for safety.

§ Listen to EMS providers.

§ Observe the scene.

§ Call for assistance as needed.

o Firefighter Physical and Mental Health:

§ A healthy lifestyle is important.

§ Learn proper lifting techniques.

§ Medical calls can affect mental health.

§ Safety and injury prevention is key when responding on emergency medical calls.

o Infection Control for Emergency Care Providers:

§ Always follow universal precautions or BSI.

§ Protective barriers include gloves, gowns, masks, and eyewear.

§ Protect yourself from needle sticks.

§ Use ventilation devices.

§ Dispose of waste properly.

§ Consider Hepatitis B Vaccine.

o Assessing a Patient:

§ Quick visual assessment.

§ Initial assessment.

o Performing an Initial Assessment:

§ Level of consciousness (head/neck stabilization.)

§ Airway.

§ Breathing.

§ Circulation.

§ Major Bleeding.

o Focused History and Physical Exam:

§ Consists of three parts:

· Patient fact-finding.

· Vital signs.

· Head-to-toe exam.

o Head-to-Toe Exam:

§ Examine the following:

· Head and neck.

· Face and eyes.

· Upper torso and chest.

· Lower torso, abdomen, and pelvis.

· Arms and legs.

o Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation:

§ CPR is one of the most basic life-saving skills.

§ Heart disease leading killer in the U.S.

§ Skills should be refreshed every 1 to 2 years.

o Bleeding Control and Shock Management:

§ Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to all cells.

§ Pump and specialized tubing make up the cardiovascular system.

§ Damage to either one can result in shock or hypoperfusion.

§ Internal bleeding occurs when there is bleeding within the body.

o Signs of Internal Bleeding:

Bruising of skin.

Pale skin.

Cold and clammy skin.

Dilated pupils.

Obvious deformities.

Rigid/tender abdomen.

Blood in urine or stool.

Blood from mouth or nose.

Blood in vomitus.

o Types of External Bleeding:

§ Arterial.

§<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'> Venous.

§ Capillary.

o Controlling External Bleeding:

§ Direct pressure.

§ Elevation.

§ Pressure points.

o Types of Wounds:

Abrasions

Avulsions

Amputations

Lacerations

Incisions

Punctures

o Signs and Symptoms of Shock:

Pale or bluish skin.

Cool skin temperature.

Sweating or moist skin.

Dilated pupils .

Rapid, shallow breathing.

Rapid, weak pulse.

Nausea, thirst, or vomiting.

Altered level of consciousness.

Unconsciousness.

o Caring for Shock:

§ Secure an open airway

§ Ensure breathing and pulse is present.

§ Care for any injuries present

§ Keep patient warm

§ Raise legs if no injury is present

§ Position the patient properly.

§ Reassure the patient

o Emergency Care for Common Emergencies:

Trouble breathing.

Chest pain.

Medical illness.

Allergic reactions.

Thermal burns.

Chemical burns.

Poisoning.

Fractures and sprains.

o WRAP-UP:

§ Emergency medical care is a major responsibility for many fire departments.

§ Care given may make the difference between life or death.

§ Firefighters can gather information for incoming EMS unit.

§ Firefighters should work together with EMS personnel.

Chapter 23 “Firefighter Survival”

“Personnel Accountability”

A “Mayday” order may ONLY be issued by the incident commander, safety officer, operations officer or a sector officer.
An Incident Commander or a sector officer may call for a PAR at any point during an operation. However, a PAR is required after any of the following events:

“firefighter down”
“mayday”
“emergency traffic”
change of tactics from offensive to defensive mode
hazardous event (terrorist attack, partial collapse, flashover, chemical release, or explosion, etc)

“SAM” is the code word If you’re in trouble (held at gunpoint, etc) when a PAR is called.

“Transportation Emergency”

· Airport:

o Blue lights - taxi way

o White lights - runway

o Red lights - end of runway

o Green lights - start of runway (small airports)

· Trains:

o Red - stop

o Green - go

o Yellow - caution

· School Busses:

o Three black bars on side - bottom is where floor is, middle is where seat is and top is where the top of the seat is.

“Records and Reports”

· NFIRS - National Fire Incident Reporting System

· TXFIRS - Texas Fire Incident Reporting System

“Wildland Firefighting”

In Texas, fight with the direction of attack (from the black DIRECT ATTACK). Not ahead of the fire (INDERCT ATTACK).

· Wildland fire fuels:

o Aerial fuels:

§ Branches

§ Moss

§ Snags (broken dead branches in tree, ground or stumps)

o Surface fuels:

§ Brush

§ Needles, twigs, grass, limb wood (branches on ground)

o Subsurface Fuels:

§ Duff

§ Roots

· Parts of a Wildland Fire:

o Finger

o Spot fire

o Head or front (direction fire is heading)

o Heel or rear

o Right/left flank

· Indirect Attack:

o Fire is indirectly controlled by burning off intervening fuel from a planned control line.

· Wildland Fire Triangle:

o Weather

o Fuel

o Topography

· Fuels Factors:

o Fuel loading

o Size and shape

o Compactness

o Horizontal continuity

o Vertical continuity

o Chemical content

· Types of Wildland fire:

o Flash fire:

§ Fast

o Intermediate fire :

§ slower, hotter burning

o Crowning fire:

§ slower but INTENSE HEAT

· Topography Factors:

o Elevation

o Position on slope

o Aspect

o Shape of country

o Steepness of slope

“Apparatus Familiarization”

NFPA 1901 - Standard for automotive fire apparatus (designed for long term pump operations and

minimum requirements for new class A pumpers)

o Pump:

§ Pump capacity of no less than 750 GPM ESSENTIALS SAYS MUST BE ABLE TO LOAD AND OFF-LOAD @ 1,000 gpm WHEN SHUTTELING WATER.

§ Centrifugal type with stainless steel shaft and bronze impeller

o Tank:

§ Minimum 500 gallon capacity

§ Water level indicator at operators position

o Ladders:

§ Straight ladder 14ft (minimum) equipped with roof hooks

§ Extension ladder – minimum of 24ft

o Hose:

§ Minimum 20ft hard suction hose

§ 1200 ft of 2.5” or larger supply hose

§ 400 ft of 1.5” to 2” fire hose

o Other Equipment:

§ 1 ten foot folding attic ladder

§ 2 hydrant wrenches

§ 2 fog nozzles w/ 200 GPM rating

§ 2 fog nozzles w/ 95 GPM rating

§ 2 portable hand lights w/ mounting brackets

§ 1 approved portable extinguisher

§ 4 combo spanner wrenches w/ brackets

§ 1 six pound flathead axe

§ 1 six pound pick axe

§ 1 six foot pike pole

§ 1 eight foot or longer pike pole

§ 1 SCBA per seating position (not less than four)

§ 1 spare SCBA bottle per SCBA carried

§ 2 salvage covers (minimum of 12’x12’)

§ 1 first aid kit

§ 1 rubber mallet

§ 2 wheel chocks

NFPA 1902 - New apparatus designed for initial suppression on structural, vehicle and vegetation fires.

(Also called “mini-pumpers” Squad)

o Pump:

§ Pump capacity of 250-750 GPM at 150 PSI

o Tank:

§ Minimum 200 gallon capacity

§ Non corrosive and removable

o Hose:

§ 300 ft of 2.5” fire hose

§ 400 ft of 1.5” to 2” fire hose

o Other Equipment:

§ 1 extension ladder 12-16 ft

§ 1 hydrant wrench

§ 15 ft hard suction hose

§ 2 fog nozzles w/ 95 GPM rating

§ 2 portable hand lights w/ mounting brackets

§ 1 approved portable extinguisher

§ 2 combo spanner wrenches

§ 1 six pound pick axe

§ 1 six foot pike pole

§ 1 SCBA per seating position (not less than two)

§ 1 spare SCBA bottle per SCBA carried

§ 1 first aid kit

§ 1 rubber mallet

§ 2 wheel chocks

NFPA 1903 - Apparatus designed to transport water to emergency scenes (tankers or tenders)

o Pump:

§ Minimum 1000 gallon capacity

§ Water level indicator

o Hose:

§ 200 ft of 2.5” fire hose

§ if it has a pump:

· 200 ft of 1.75” fire hose

o Other Equipment:

§ 1 hydrant wrench

§ 200 ft of 65mm or larger hose

§ 2 combo spanner wrenches

§ 1 six pound flathead axe

§ 1 SCBA per seating position (not less than two)

§ 1 spare SCBA bottle per SCBA carried

§ 1 first aid kit

§ 1 2.5” hydrant gate valve

§ 1 wheel chock

§ 1 1500 gallon collapsible portable tank

NFPA 1904 - Standard for aerial apparatus (“Quints”)

Quintuple is an aerial apparatus including: water, hose, pump, ladder, aerial.

o Ladders:

§ 1 10 ft folding (attic) ladder

§ 2 16 ft roof ladders

§ 3 14 ft combination ladders

§ 1 24 ft extension ladder

o Required Equipment:

§ 4 portable hand lights w/ mounting brackets

§ 2 approved portable extinguishers

§ 1 2.5 gallon or larger water extinguisher

§ 1 SCBA per seating position (not less than four)

§ 1 spare SCBA bottle per SCBA carried

§ 1 first aid kit

§ 4 combination spanner wrenches with bracket

§ 2 hydrant wrenches

§ 2 scoop shovels

§ 1 hose roller

§ 1 bolt cutters – 24” minimum

§ 4 class 1 life safety harnesses

§ 250 ft of life safety rope 1/2” diameter

§ 250 ft of life safety rope 5/8” diameter

§ 2 250 ft lengths of rope having a minimum working load of 10,000 lbs

§ 4 wheel chocks

§ one box of tools to include the following:

· 1 hacksaw w/ 3 blades

· 1 keyhole saw

· 1 12” adjustable wrench

· 1 24” adjustable wrench

· 1 ball peen hammer

· 1 tin snips

· 1 pliers

· 1 lineman’s pliers

· Assorted types and sizes of screwdrivers

· Assorted adjustable wrenches

· Assorted combination wrenches

o Other Equipment:

§ 2 six pound flathead axes

§ 3 six pound pick axes

§ 2 six ft pike poles

§ 2 eight ft pike poles

§ 2 12’ pike poles

§ 2 three/four ft pike poles w/ D-handles

§ 2 crowbars

§ 2 claw tools

§ 2 sledgehammers

11/08/2003

Homework:

Chapter “”

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11/08/2003

Homework:

Chapter “”

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